Assessment Tool Analysis

41

Ethical, Legal, and Professional Considerations in Assessment

chapter

3

Regardless of the degree to which you think you will use assessment in your practice, it is quite important to understand ethical and legal considerations. Ethical guidelines, assess- ment standards provided by professional organizations, and legal statutes and key court decisions collectively play a role in how counselors perform various assessment activities. In this chapter some of the standards and guidelines within professional organizations that are useful for evaluating tests and test usage are discussed. Then, specifi c ethical and legal considerations related to counselor competence and client welfare—as well as other professional issues in testing—are presented.

Test Your Knowledge

Select the most appropriate choice for each item.

1. The major responsibility for proper assessment use falls on the _________.

a. Publisher b. Test developer c. Counselor who uses the test d. Client

□ T □ F 2. Due to the nature of testing, informed consent is not required for test administration.

□ T □ F 3. The ACA Code of Ethics contains a section on assessment ethics.

□ T □ F 4. There are advocacy groups in existence to protect against test restriction lawsuits.

5. ACA’s divisions provide assessment standards for which of the following specialty areas?

a. School counseling b. Substance abuse counseling c. Career counseling d. All of the above

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42 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

Standards and Guidelines for Evaluating Tests and Test Usage Several sets of standards have been published by professional organizations concerning the development and use of psychological assessment procedures. Counselors should be familiar with each set of standards or guidelines for test usage presented in this section. In this section several important documents that affect test usage are presented: the ACA Code of Ethics (ACA, 2005); the NBCC Code of Ethics (National Board for Certifi ed Counselors [NBCC], 2005); Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (AERA, APA, & NCME, 1999); Joint Committee on Testing Practices documents; and ACA general testing stan- dards, such as the Responsibilities of Users of Standardized Tests (RUST), Standards for Quali- fi cations of Test Users, the ACA Position Statement on High Stakes Testing, and the Association for Assessment in Counseling and Education (AACE) Standards for Multicultural Assessment.

In addition to these general standards and guidelines, AACE has developed several specialty standards in collaboration with other ACA divisions. These specialty standards include Career Counselor Assessment and Evaluation Competencies (AACE & National Ca- reer Development Association [NCDA], 2010); Marriage, Couple and Family Counseling As- sessment Competencies (AACE & American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy [AAMFT], 2010); Standards for Assessment in Mental Health Counseling (AACE & American Mental Health Counselors Association [AMHCA], 2010); Competencies in Assessment and Evaluation for School Counselors (AACE & American School Counselor Association [ASCA], 1998); Standards for Assessment in Substance Abuse Counseling (AACE & International As- sociation of Addictions and Offender Counseling [IAAOC], 2010); and guidelines for pre- employment testing (AACE & American Rehabilitation Counseling Association [ARCA], 2003). Web links for most of these guidelines and standards are presented in Appendix B.

ACA Code of Ethics

The ACA Code of Ethics (ACA, 2005) specifi es principles of ethical conduct and standards of professional behavior for counselors. Section E of the 2005 code provides information on evaluation, assessment, and interpretation. Section E components outline the following: general assessment purposes; issues surrounding competence, informed consent, and as- sessment data reporting; diagnosis; instrument selection; test administration, scoring, and interpretation; diversity in assessment; assessment security; use of outdated assessments and results; assessment construction; and forensic evaluation.

NBCC Code of Ethics

Section D of the NBCC Code of Ethics (NBCC, 2005) refers to standards for measurement and evaluation. These codes were developed from the above-mentioned ACA Code of Eth- ics as well as the RUST Statement (described below), among others. The NBCC codes were initially proposed in 1982 and are now in their seventh revision. Themes of the 15 compe- tencies include competence, informed consent, instrument selection, test administration and interpretation, data reporting, use of obsolete materials and results, test security, tech- nology, and reproduction of test materials and results.

Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing

The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (AERA, APA, & NCME, 1999) provide criteria for evaluating both the tests themselves and use of the tests. The crite- ria were prepared by a joint committee of the American Educational Research Associa- tion (AERA), the American Psychological Association (APA), and the National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME). Originating in 1954 with a sixth revision in 1999, the standards are presently undergoing a seventh revision. Originally, this publication em-

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43 Ethical, Legal, and Professional Considerations in Assessment •

phasized technical standards for test construction and evaluation. As the editions evolved, the joint committee placed increased emphasis on the responsibilities of the test user and the need for fairness in testing. Adherence to the standards by counselors should help to improve testing practices and reduce criticism of tests and test usage.

A portion of the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing deals with the technical quality of tests and test materials and the standards to be followed by test developers and test publishers before distributing the test. Test publishers and authors make money from the sales and royalties on tests that are sold, and there is an obvious temptation to exaggerate the useful- ness or the validity of such tests. The committee that developed the standards placed consid- erable emphasis on the importance of “truth in advertising” in test publishing. Test manuals should provide evidence of both reliability—including information regarding the methods of estimating reliability and the populations on which reliability was measured—and validity, including types of validity studies and validity relevant to the intended use of the test.

Certain standards are designed to prevent the premature sale of tests for general use and to specify when the test is to be released for research purposes only. The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing emphasize that the test manual should not be designed to sell the test but should include adequate information about the administration, scoring, norms, and other technical data to permit the potential user to evaluate the test itself and its potential use as well as to properly interpret its results.

Joint Committee on Testing Practices Documents

The Joint Committee on Testing Practices (JCTP) was established in 1985 as a forum for counseling- and education-related associations to collaborate for the common good for fair, accessible, and appropriate use of tests. The overarching goal of JCTP was to improve test use through education, not to limit test access (Naugle, 2009). Throughout its existence, JCTP included representatives from the ACA, AERA, APA, American Speech-Language- Hearing Association, National Association of School Psychologists, National Association of Test Directors, and NCME. Although JCTP disbanded in 2007, their documents are still very useful to counselors. A brief description of some of the major documents (Responsible Test Use, Rights and Responsibilities of Test Takers, Code of Fair Testing Practices in Education) from its working groups are provided here.

Responsible Test Use Research conducted under the auspices of JCTP has identifi ed 86 competencies required for the proper use of different instruments (Eyde, Robertson, & Krug, 2010; Moreland, Eyde, Robertson, Primoff, & Most, 1995). Of the 86 competencies, 12 embody minimum profi ciencies for all test users, such as avoiding errors in scoring and recording, using set- tings for testing that allow for optimum performance (e.g., adequate room), and establish- ing rapport with examinees to obtain accurate answers (see Table 3.1).

Factor-analytic research indicates that the 86 competencies can be reduced to seven broad factors: comprehensive assessment, proper test use, psychometric knowledge, integrity of test results, scoring accuracy, appropriate use of norms, and interpretive feedback. On the ba- sis of research regarding test misuse, the relative signifi cance of the seven factors varies with the particular type of test. For example, competencies in comprehensive assessment are more important in using clinical tests, whereas skills in the appropriate use of norms are more important in vocational tests (Moreland et al., 1995). Examples of appropriate and inappro- priate test usage based on the 86 competencies and seven broad factors are provided in the casebook, Responsible Test Use: Case Studies for Assessing Human Behavior (Eyde et al., 2010).

Rights and Responsibilities of Test Takers In one of its efforts to improve testing practices, the JCTP developed a statement that lists the rights and responsibilities of individual test takers: Rights and Responsibilities of Test Takers

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44 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

Guidelines and Expectations (JCTP, 1999). For example, test takers have a right to know the purpose of testing, who will have access to their scores, how the tests will be used, and possible consequences of taking or not taking the test. They also have personal responsibilities, such as reading or listening to descriptive test information, informing test administrators of special needs, and asking questions about specifi c concerns they might have.

This document also provides detailed guidelines for test administrators to ensure that test takers receive their rights and understand their responsibilities. As test administrators, counselors should clarify the rights and responsibilities of test takers and obtain informed consent before proceeding with testing. They should be able to offer reasonable accom- modations for test takers with disabilities. Counselors should provide appropriate infor- mation to clients concerning the testing process, such as suggestions for test preparation, scoring procedures, opportunities to retake the test, provisions for feedback, availability of interpretive materials, and confi dentiality safeguards.

Code of Fair Testing Practices in Education Whereas the document discussed above outlines the rights and responsibilities of test takers— and the expectations professionals have of them—the Code of Fair Testing Practices in Education (JCTP, 2004) outlines the primary obligations of professionals toward test takers. This code, fi rst issued by the JCTP in 1988, has been updated and expanded (JCTP, 2004). The code focuses on the development and use of educational tests from the standpoint of fairness to all test takers regardless of age, gender, disability, race, ethnicity, or other personal characteristics. The revised version of the code lists a total of 31 standards for test developers and test users in four areas: developing and selecting appropriate tests, administering and scoring tests, reporting and interpreting test results, and informing test takers.

These standards, which complement the Standards for Educational and Psychological Test- ing, are not mandatory as such, but they are intended to inspire test developers and test users to consider the importance of fairness in all aspects of testing. For example, test users are encouraged to evaluate test materials for offensive language, to select tests that have been modifi ed appropriately for clients with disabilities, and to consider to what extent test performance for individuals from diverse subgroups may have been affected by factors unrelated to the skill being assessed.

Table 3.1 Twelve Minimum Competencies for Proper Use of Tests

Item No. Competency

1. Avoiding errors in scoring and recording 2. Refraining from labeling people with personally derogatory terms like dishonest on the basis

of a test score that lacks perfect validity 3. Keeping scoring keys and test materials secure 4. Seeing that every examinee follows directions so that test scores are accurate 5. Using settings for testing that allow for optimum performance by test takers (e.g., adequate

room) 6. Refraining from coaching or training individuals or groups on test items, which results in

misrepresentation of the person’s abilities and competencies 7. Being willing to give interpretation and guidance to test takers in counseling situations 8. Not making photocopies of copyrighted materials 9. Refraining from using homemade answer sheets that do not align properly with scoring keys 10. Establishing rapport with examinees to obtain accurate scores 11. Refraining from answering questions from test takers in greater detail than the test manual

permits 12. Not assuming that a norm for one job applies to a different job (and not assuming that

norms for one group automatically apply to other groups)

Note. From “Assessment of Test User Qualifi cations: A Research-Based Measurement Procedure,” by K. L. Moreland et al., 1995, American Psychologist, 50, p. 16. Copyright 1995 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted with permission.

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45 Ethical, Legal, and Professional Considerations in Assessment •

Responsibilities of Users of Standardized Tests The AACE, one of the ACA divisions, developed a policy statement titled Responsibili- ties of Users of Standardized Tests (referred to as the RUST Statement). Now undergoing a fourth revision, the RUST Statement lists responsibilities of test users in seven categories: qualifi cations of test users, technical knowledge, test selection, test administration, test scoring, interpretation of test results, and communication of test results. A model devel- oped by the Test User Qualifi cations working group is included in the third edition of the RUST Statement.

Standards for Qualifi cations of Test Users The Standards for Qualifi cations of Test Users (ACA, 2003) was developed by the ACA Standards for Test Use Task Force. This document was based on the Standards for Edu- cational and Psychological Testing as well as ACA and ASCA ethical standards, the RUST Statement, and JCTP documents. The document includes seven competencies: testing prac- tice and knowledge, knowledge of technical aspects and test construction, knowledge of sampling techniques and norming considerations, test selection and administration to ap- propriately apply in the counseling context, test administration and interpretation of test scores, diversity considerations, and a general understanding of ethical and legal consid- erations for appropriate test use and the documents that guide it.

ACA Position Statement on High Stakes Testing The ACA Position Statement on High Stakes Testing (ACA, n.d.) includes 10 recommend- ed principles to consider with use of high-stakes achievement tests, which are increasingly common as a result of the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001. Developed using similar documents as the ACA Standards for Qualifi cations of Test Users, the position state- ment outlines principles related to the following: alignment of assessments with academic and curricular standards; use of multiple measures; awareness of the impact of testing on students; students’ equitable access to learning; availability of student remediation; provi- sion of testing resources; technical quality of tests; utility and comprehensiveness of test purpose, fi ndings, and applications for all involved; validity of scores for diverse groups; and policies that allow for a fair and accurate high-stakes testing process.

AACE Standards for Multicultural Assessment Originally published in 1992, the AACE Standards for Multicultural Assessment is now in its fourth edition (AACE, 2012). The third revision in 2003 relied on fi ve source documents: the Code of Fair Testing Practices in Education, RUST Statement, Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing, Multicultural Counseling Competencies and Standards (Sue, Arredondo, & McDavis, 1992), and the 1996 version of the ACA Code of Ethics. The 38 multicultural assessment standards of the latest version are categorized into fi ve major clusters: advo- cacy, selection of assessments, administration and scoring of assessment, interpretation and application of assessment results, and training in the uses of assessments.

Specialty Assessment Standards The AACE, in collaboration with several ACA divisions, has developed specialty stan- dards to guide testing practices in more specifi c counseling specialties such as career, mar- riage and family, mental health, school, substance abuse, and rehabilitation counseling. Many of these specialty standards will be expanded upon in other parts of the text, so I provide only a general description here.

The Career Counselor Assessment and Evaluation Competencies, adopted formally by the AACE and NCDA in 2010, outlines eight general competencies to assist career counsel- ors in assessment and evaluation practices with students, clients, and other stakeholders. Specifi cally, career counselors are to be skilled in choosing assessment strategies; identify- ing, accessing, and evaluating instruments; using appropriate administration and scor- ing techniques; interpreting and reporting results; using results appropriately in decision

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46 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

making; producing, interpreting, and presenting sound statistical information; engaging in responsible assessment and evaluation practices; and using results with other data sources in career programs and interventions.

The Marriage, Couple and Family Counseling Assessment Competencies, a col- laboration with the AAMFT in 2009, articulates fi ve competencies for appropriate assessment practices in couples and family counseling. These competencies refer to understanding (a) historical perspectives of systems concepts, theories, and assess- ment methods; (b) basic technical aspects of assessments; (c) qualitative and quantita- tive concepts of assessment; (d) strengths and limitations of assessment and diagnosis models; and (e) appropriate test selection, administration, and interpretation for work with couples and families.

The Standards for Assessment in Mental Health Counseling was developed by the AACE and AMHCA in 2010 to highlight important knowledge and skill areas related to mental health counseling assessment. The 12 standards refer to such competencies as the use of interview and qualitative assessment procedures; instrument evaluation, selection, and usage; diversity considerations; technical knowledge; appropriate application of as- sessment results to treatment planning and interventions; communication of test results; use of assessment to determine treatment effi cacy; continuing education in assessment; knowledge of and adherence to ethical use of assessments; and pedagogical considerations for appropriate training.

The Competencies in Assessment and Evaluation for School Counselors, with its origi- nal version in 1998 adopted by the AACE and ASCA, includes nine competencies for ef- fective school counseling assessment practices. These competencies include reference to components such as test selection and access, technical knowledge, test interpretation and communication, use of test result for decision making, implementation of school counselor programs and the appropriate interpretation of evaluations, adaptation of assessments to meet local needs, and engagement in professionally responsible assessment and evalua- tion practices.

The AACE and IAAOC adopted in 2010 the Standards for Assessment in Sub- stance Abuse Counseling, involving 10 standards for appropriate substance abuse assessment. Areas covered in the standards include effective assessment of the effects and withdrawal symptoms of commonly abused drugs; assessment of co-occurring disorders, including process addictions; technical knowledge; use of multiple measures; test selection; test interpretation and appropriate use of find- ings in substance abuse counseling interventions; continuing education; and peda- gogical considerations.

The document titled Pre-Employment Testing and the ADA, adopted in 2003 by the AACE and ARCA, provides useful information for counselors working with clients with disabilities under the Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA). Specifi cally, sections of the document refer to validity considerations; general testing accommodations in terms of test format, time limits, and test content; accommodations for specifi c dis- abilities; and resources.

Activity 3.1 Ethical Guidelines and Standards Select at least two of the above ethical guidelines and testing stan- dards listed in Appendix B or the References list. Review the docu- ments carefully. How are these documents similar to each other? How are they different? Which statements or codes may be partic- ularly challenging for you? How might you refer to these in your counseling practice?

• • •

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47 Ethical, Legal, and Professional Considerations in Assessment •

Tip Sheet

Ethical Assessment

✓ Review all pertinent ethical standards, required lists of competencies, and other doc- uments described in the previous section prior to selecting an assessment tool.

✓ Be sure you are well-trained and competent in the assessment process overall as well as for specifi c assessment tools. As discussed in this chapter, competence is usually deter- mined by professional organizations, state credentialing bodies, and test publishers.

✓ Have a basic understanding of key psychometric terms, such as validity, reliability, standardization, test construction, measurement error, and scales of measurement. Statistical and measurement considerations are discussed in Chapters 5 and 6.

✓ On a related note, review the testing manual or assessment materials for psycho- metric evidence as well as the history of how, with what sampling frame, and under what circumstances the test was developed. This information will be extremely im- portant as you decide which tools to use and how to interpret fi ndings.

✓ Adopt a philosophy that assessment is a part of counseling to promote client wel- fare. Collaborate with your clients throughout the counseling process regarding what, when, how, and why various assessments will be used. Engage in ongoing informed consent.

✓ Review limits of confi dentiality and process with clients who should receive assess- ment data about them and why.

✓ Select assessment tools that are culturally appropriate and do not perpetuate client stereotyping. Use multiple assessment methods to provide a comprehensive picture of your client.

✓ Consider under what conditions clinical diagnosis is necessary. Communicate clear- ly to the client the purpose, strengths, and limitations of diagnosis. Provide a proper diagnosis using multiple assessment methods, considering cultural bias throughout the diagnostic process. Cultural considerations in diagnosis are discussed further in Chapters 4 and 8.

✓ Create appropriate, comfortable, and organized assessment conditions for the client. Administration factors will play an important role in ethically sound test interpreta- tion and may help reduce test anxiety for clients.

✓ Assessment results, when inappropriately interpreted or disclosed, can have very damaging consequences for clients. Avoid using assessment tools that are either out- dated or have content or scoring and interpretation methods that are not appropriate for your client.

✓ Be sure to disclose results to relevant individuals, with the consent of clients as ethi- cally required. Continually assess test security and misuse of testing. Involve clients as relevant in the test communication process.

✓ Confi rm that clients understand any assessment fi nding. As you interpret a tool, check in with clients to gauge whether they understand the content of what is pre- sented as well as what the results may mean for them.

Key Ethical and Legal Considerations in Assessment

There are a number of situations in which ethical principles are called into question when psychological tests are used in counseling and placement. Two major interdependent con- siderations are highlighted in this section: counselor competence and client welfare. In addition, there are several federal and state laws and regulations—as well as major court

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48 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

decisions—that impact assessment in counseling (see Table 3.2). Review these legal con- siderations and consider how they might relate to ethical guidelines and assessment stan- dards discussed in the previous section (see Activity 3.1 on p. 46).

Table 3.2 Key Laws, Regulations, and Court Decisions Affecting Assessment in Counseling

Civil Rights Act, Title VII (1964, 1972, 1978, and 1991)

Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act of 1974 (FERPA)

Education of All Handi- capped Children (Pub. L., 94-142), Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA, Pub. L., 99-457; amendment of Pub. L., 94-142)

Vocational Education Act of 1984 (Pub. L., 98-524)

Education of the Handi- capped Act of 1990 (Pub. L., 101-476)

Americans With Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA)

Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) of 1996

No Child Left Behind Act of 2001

Larry P. v. Riles (1974, 1979, 1984)

Diana v. California State Board of Education (1973, 1979)

Sharif v. New York State Educational Development (1989)

Griggs v. Duke Power Company (1971)

Bakke v. California (1978)

Assessments used in employment testing must not discriminate against individuals based on age, race, gender, pregnancy, religion, or national origin.

Student test records are to remain secure from unnecessary parties. FERPA advocates for the rights of student and parental view of these records.

Pub. L., 94-142 requires parent informed consent before assessing students’ abilities in order to determine exceptional needs and to develop individualized education plans to maximize educational opportunities. The 2004 amendment (Pub. L., 99-457) extends the right of appropriate education to children 3 years and older, encour- aging states to intervene early for children with disabilities. Students have the right to be tested for disabilities at the school system’s expense and must subsequently be provided with the “least restrictive environment” for learning.

Also referred to as the Carl D. Perkins Act, individuals who are disad- vantaged (e.g., language barrier, disability, incarcerated individuals) are entitled to receive vocational assessment and support.

Students with disabilities are entitled to a supportive transition from school to vocational rehabilitation, adult services, employment, or further education.

Tests used for employment or other selection purposes must accurately measure an individual’s ability without being confounded by the disability itself. Also, individuals with disabilities must receive test accommodations as needed.

Client records must remain secure and third parties are to obtain appropriate consent to access those records. Clients have the right to their health records.

States are to continually assess mathematics and reading skills of its students to ensure quality in schools. Schools are held accountable for student test scores in these areas.

Ruled that schools had used intelligence tests that were biased and disadvantaged African American students, placing them inappropri- ately in special education. Counselors need proper documentation when placing children in special education.

Schools are to provide tests to students both in their fi rst language as well as in English. Counselors are to provide tests in an appropriate language for the client.

Those working in New York schools (including school counselors) could not use only SAT scores for making scholarship decisions.

A plaintiff must demonstrate job discrimination and an employer must demonstrate that hiring procedures are job related and associated with job performance.

Colleges and universities cannot use a quota system for minority group admissions.

Note. Pub. L. = Public Law; SAT = Scholastic Aptitude Test. Information from E. D. Bennett & Hastings (2009) and Erford et al. (2011).

Law or Court Decision Description Public Laws

Select Court Decisions

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49 Ethical, Legal, and Professional Considerations in Assessment •

Counselor Competence in Testing

An important ethical issue concerns the competence of the counselor to use the various available assessments. The issue is whether those who use various tests have suffi cient knowledge and understanding to select tests intelligently and to interpret their results. Because different tests demand different levels of competence for their use, users must recognize the limits of their competence and make use only of instruments for which they have adequate preparation and training. The administration and interpretation of individ- ual intelligence tests, such as the Stanford–Binet or the Wechsler tests; certain personality tests, such as the MMPI-2; or projective personality tests, such as the Rorschach or the TAT, require considerable advanced training and practice to obtain the necessary background and skill for their appropriate use. The question then becomes this: Who determines if a counselor is competent to use tests? Three sources are discussed in this section. It is impor- tant to mention here that even though these sources help dictate who is competent to use tests, the ultimate responsibility falls on the counselor to decide if he or she is competent to avoid test misuse.

Test Publishers A number of test publishers set levels of competency to determine who can purchase and use tests; they often require a statement of qualifi cations from purchasers of psychologi- cal tests (Naugle, 2009). Tests are graded by levels in regard to the amount of background and experience required and are sold only to those who meet the standards required for particular tests. These levels of qualifi cations are usually included in the test publishers’ sales catalogs. Psychological Corporation, for example, provides four levels: Level A (no qualifi cations needed); Level B (master’s degree in psychology-related or education-relat- ed fi eld, appropriate training, or membership in appropriate professional organizations); Level C (doctorate in psychology-related or education-related fi eld, appropriate training, or license or other credential that requires assessment training/experience); and Level Q (specifi c background in a specifi c test, ethical training in assessment). Multi-Health Sys- tems, another publishing company, uses predominately Level B and C designations. Level B requires appropriate coursework in a program or other training, and Level C includes Level B requirements as well as an advanced degree and training and experience in test use (Naugle, 2009).

Some publishers do not use competency levels. For example, Western Psychological Services only requires you to be a “qualifi ed professional.” Test users typically compile a qualifi cation questionnaire, and the publisher determines if they are qualifi ed (Naugle, 2009). In addition to individual publisher criteria for test user qualifi cation, Naugle (2009) noted that professionals must also attest to the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (AERA, APA, & NCME, 1999). Interestingly, the standards themselves do not re- quire counselors to adhere to the level process set by test publishers.

Professional Associations Counselors are also to review their professional associations’ ethical codes and other rel- evant documents. Fortunately, there is agreement among those who determine competence. For example, counselors graduating from a Council for the Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP) or CACREP-equivalent program will have met at least Levels A and B because the qualifi cations are written in the standards. Naugle (2009) noted that most professional associations accept the following test publisher qualifi cations and criteria: coursework in tests and measurements; graduate degree in a counseling-related fi eld; supervised experience in testing; appropriate levels of training for specifi c tests; and appropriate rationale for test use in diagnosis, treatment planning, and interventions. Fur- thermore, state licensure laws parallel CACREP curricular standards and often require a passing score on the National Counselor Examination as well as supervised experience.

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50 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

States As part of their legal statutes, states attend to testing use. State licensure boards also deter- mine test user competence. According to Naugle (2009), all states consider counselors as licensed/certifi ed professionals. Thus, all states recognize assessment as part of the daily practices of counselors. Furthermore, the ACA’s 1994 licensure bill infl uences how state licensure boards determine scope and sometimes practice of assessment. Glosoff, Benshoff, Hosie, and Maki (1995) defi ned assessment in the bill as follows:

Assessment shall mean selecting, administering, scoring, and interpreting psychological and educational instruments designed to assess an individual’s attitudes, abilities, achievements, interests, personal characteristics, disabilities, and mental, emotional, and behavioral disor- ders and the use of methods and techniques for understanding human behavior in relation to coping with, adapting to, or changing life situations. (p. 211)

This defi nition of assessment has been instrumental in determining scope of practice for counselors. Naugle (2009) reviewed assessment legislation by the states and noted that a majority specify assessment in the scope of counseling practice and assessment as one core area of curriculum. She noted that only a handful defi ne “acceptable” assessment practices (or restrict specifi c tests) beyond what is stated in the scope of practice. Many states outline which assessment types can be administered.

Test Competence and Test Access Issues Although there may be general agreement among professional associations about what test qualifi cations are, traditionally there has been disagreement about who is qualifi ed-— partly because of often vague requirements set forth by test publishers, state statutes, and professional association themselves. In fact, several state psychology boards have sued to restrict nonpsychologists’ access to the majority of common psychological assessments. Thus, even though the ACA defi nition of assessment includes language regarding use of psychological instruments, state psychology boards often argue that those who do not have a psychology license “need not apply.”

Clawson (1997) noted that because professional associations’ licensure models offer confl icting defi nitions of assessment—and these models infl uence licensure—opposition has occurred regarding test access. For example, there have been unsuccessful attempts at test restriction in Florida, Indiana, South Carolina, Iowa, Louisiana, Arkansas, Kentucky, and California. Interestingly, many of the tests that state psychology boards wanted re- stricted were developed by nonpsychologists! ACA has responded to test restriction efforts across the last couple of decades.

Fortunately, advocacy from organizations such as the Fair Access Coalition on Testing (FACT) has helped to oppose these efforts to restrict test access. FACT’s (n.d.) mission is to serve as “protection and support of public access to professionals and organizations who have demonstrated competence in the administration and interpretation of assessment instruments, including psychological tests” (http://www.fairaccess.org). In essence, advocates argue that as long as you have appropriate levels of education, training, and experience, you have the right and capacity to use assessments no matter the profession. They further note that counsel- ors and other professionals should monitor, not restrict, test use as appropriate. FACT mem- bers seek to increase public awareness and communicate the rationale for fair access to tests as well as monitor legislation and develop and promote relevant ethical standards.

Why is test access so important? First, there has been a rise in testing needs in various parts of the country as there has been an increased reliance on assessment results in deci- sion making. Second, tests are an important part of counselors’ daily practices and ac- tivities. As stated in Chapter 1, assessment is synonymous with counseling. If assessment activities are restricted, counselors’ professional identity may be restricted. Finally, clients lose when tests are restricted. When counselors’ assessment rights are threatened, clients

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51 Ethical, Legal, and Professional Considerations in Assessment •

have fewer opportunities to access interventions they may need. In theory, as long as vari- ous professionals are not pretending to be other types of professionals—and they have the proper training and experience—they should be able to access tests related to their compe- tence. It is therefore very important for counselors to monitor state legislation and pending lawsuits that may restrict their practices.

Client Welfare Issues

Occasionally, an ethical issue arises regarding the welfare of the client in the assessment process. Is the welfare of the client being taken into consideration in the choice and use of tests? Except in such cases as court referrals, custody determinations, or institutional test- ing programs, this is seldom an issue in counseling because assessments are usually used to help the client and not for other purposes.

Another client welfare issue deals with the questions of privacy and confi dentiality (see ACA, 2005). In counseling situations, clients are typically willing to reveal aspects about themselves to obtain help with their problems; thus, the invasion-of-privacy issue, often a concern in psychological testing elsewhere, is seldom a concern in counseling. Clients obvi- ously would not wish this information to be disclosed to others. Test data, along with other records of the counseling relationship, must be considered professional information for use in counseling and must not be revealed to others without the express consent of the client. Certain types of test results, such as those assessing intelligence or aptitude and those that ask for or reveal emotional or attitudinal traits, often may deal with sensitive aspects of per- sonal lives or personal limitations—most individuals would prefer that such information not be disclosed to others.

Problems of confi dentiality often arise when the counselor is employed by an institution or organization, which can result in confl icting loyalties (to the client and to the institution or organization). In these circumstances, counselors should tell clients in advance how the assessment results will be used and make clear the limits of confi dentiality. In general, ethical principles state that the test results are confi dential unless the client gives his or her consent for the test results to be provided to someone else. The limits of confi dentiality and the circumstances under which it can be broken (such as clear and present danger or court subpoena) must be communicated to and understood by the client. These issues are included in various codes of ethics (e.g., ACA, 2005; NBCC, 2005).

In reporting results to others who have a reason and need to make use of the results under the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act of 1974 (FERPA; see Table 3.2), coun- selors must ensure that the results of assessments and their interpretations are not misused by others. Is the person receiving the information qualifi ed to understand and interpret the results? It is incumbent on the counselor to interpret the results in a way that they can be intelligently understood by those receiving them, including teachers and parents. In ad- dition, the counselor has an obligation to point out the limitations of the results and any other important information about reliability or validity, as well as a description of the norms used and their appropriateness.

Clients, of course, have the right to know assessment results, with interpretations of the results communicated to them in a language they can clearly understand. The results must be interpreted to clients in such a way that clients understand what the tests mean and also what they do not mean. It is important that clients not reach unwarranted conclusions from the interpretation that they receive.

The manner in which assessment results are communicated to others (when appropri- ate) should be carefully considered. Results should usually be presented descriptively rather than numerically. The use of labels that can be misinterpreted or damaging should be avoid- ed. Instead, interpretations should be presented in terms of possible ranges of achievement or formulations of interventions to assist the individual in behaving more effectively.

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52 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

To help ensure confidentiality, counselors should keep assessment results in a place where they are accessible only to authorized individuals. They should be main- tained in school or agency files only so long as they serve a useful purpose. With the advent of computerized record keeping, the difficulty of keeping assessment results secure and inaccessible to all but authorized users has increased. Confidentiality must be maintained across a variety of contexts, including postal, telephone, Inter- net, and other electronic transmissions. This confidentiality includes knowing who receives faxes and who has access to fax machines and answering machines. Effective measures for protecting the security of individual records and reports must be main- tained (see HIPAA in Table 3.2).

Counselors are to administer assessments in a standardized manner if possible and ap- propriate. A potential problem dealing with test administration involves test security (ACA, 2005). It is obvious that test results will not be valid if people can obtain the tests in advance. For high-stakes ability tests, on which important decisions will be based, elaborate proce- dures are established to ensure that there is adequate security. In addition, tests need to be accurately scored and accurately profi led if the results are to have valid meaning.

Because test publishers have increasingly relied on computers to prepare narrative reports of test results, there are ethical concerns regarding the quality of interpretation. Computer interpretations of such inventories as the Strong Interest Inventory or the MMPI-2 can produce interpretations that run 10–20 pages in length. Such interpretations provide a distillation of the information that has been accumulated in the profession- al literature and of the pooled experience of a number of experts. Narrative computer printouts are obviously no better than the wisdom and clinical experience on which they are based; however, they protect the client from possible bias or inexperience of an in- dividual counselor while expediting what can be a time-consuming and tedious chore of report writing. These computer interpretations are, of course, based on norms, which are not necessarily appropriate for a particular individual. They should be used only in conjunction with the counselor’s professional judgment. The narrative needs to be evaluated by the counselor who knows other facts about the client, the rationale for test- ing, and the reasons for such evaluation. The misuse of such computer-generated test interpretations has become an issue of increased concern to the counseling and psycho- logical professions.

A fi nal issue deals with the ethical use of psychological tests in research. When tests are given for research purposes, the fi rst principle is that of informed consent: having had the procedures explained to them, individuals must have the opportunity to choose whether or not to participate. Minors should also be informed, to the extent of their comprehen- sion, and parental consent is often necessary as well. A particular problem arises in testing research when fully informed consent would provide knowledge regarding the specifi c objectives of a test that would have a substantial effect on the attitude of the person taking it, therefore yielding invalid research results. In research studies, there are also the ethical issues of privacy and confi dentiality.

In general, counselors have had fewer ethical problems in the use of tests than have various other professionals, because counselors typically use tests in their activities on behalf of the client—to assist him or her in regard to decision making or to provide additional information for treatment and self-understanding. They do not usually use tests for “high-stakes” purposes such as selection, promotion, or placement. For school counselors, however, this role is changing because they and other educational adminis- trators are increasingly called on to make crucial decisions regarding student retention, tracking, or graduation based on test results as a result of the No Child Left Behind Act (see Table 3.2). To make appropriate decisions, counselors must have considerable knowledge in assessment, including measurement validity, special accommodations, and unintended consequences.

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53 Ethical, Legal, and Professional Considerations in Assessment •

Case Example 3.1

Charlotte

Charlotte, a 19-year-old female, presents to a college counseling center to seek help for increased anxiety she has had since attending college. She states she is having diffi culty understanding the course materials and is failing her courses. Charlotte reports that she seldom fi nishes class assignments or tests, as she “runs out of time.” She notes that she has no previous counseling history or academic problems.

Refl ect on the following:

• What additional information do you need about Charlotte? • How might you counsel her? • As you consider assessments to use with Charlotte, what are some considerations re-

lated to your competence in selecting, administering, and interpreting assessments? What are potential client welfare considerations?

• What ethical guidelines and/or legal standards might you review as you work with her?

• Are there certain legal cases or public laws that might affect your counseling interventions?

• What strengths might you bring to your work with Charlotte? What may be chal- lenges for you?

• • •

Professional Issues in Assessment

There are several professional issues in assessment that need to be considered. This chapter presents issues surrounding testing and technology, counseling process issues, test anxiety, and coaching. In Chapter 4, professional issues related to cultural bias throughout the as- sessment process are discussed.

Testing and Technology

The increasing automation of psychological assessment will make the administration and scoring of tests, as well as the interpretation of their results, more effi cient, more extensive, and more complex. Most of the tests commonly administered by counselors are available for administration, scoring, and interpretation with a computer (e.g., California Psychologi- cal Inventory, Differential Aptitude Test, Millon Index of Personality Styles, MMPI-2, My- ers–Brigg Type Indicator, 16 Personality Factors Questionnaire, the Strong, and the Wechsler tests). Standardized interview data can also easily be obtained through use of a computer.

The benefi ts of testing using the Internet are many, including that it can be cheaper, faster, and more effi cient. Large-scale paper-based testing programs include a number of steps that can be eliminated with Internet-based testing. When paper-and-pencil tests are administered, the test answer sheets must be scanned, then collected, checked, counted, bundled, and shipped to a scoring center prior to scoring and profi ling, all of which de- mands considerable time and cost (Wall, 2004). In contrast, tests administered on the In- ternet can be scored and interpreted for counselors and clients as fast as the last item is completed (Naglieri et al., 2004). Test publishers, stressing better and cheaper services and worldwide use, have embraced Internet testing. Revising a paper-and-pencil test requires printing and distributing new forms, answer keys, and manuals. Revisions of an Internet test can be downloaded to testing sites anywhere in moments. Internet tests can provide real-world simulations—including multimedia, three-dimensional graphics—and relevant

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54 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

resources, and thus they can assess higher order abilities and types of skills not easily measured by paper-and-pencil tests (e.g., the Test of English as a Foreign Language, which assesses listening and speaking skills over the Internet). Such processes obviously bring new challenges and problems. Various types of security must be maintained to ensure the privacy of client data and test results and to prevent the unauthorized copying of test items or the unauthorized use of testing materials. There are also other security problems, such as receiving spam, transmitting computer viruses, hacking, cheating by examinees, and maintaining copyrights across international borders.

Because Internet-based testing does not involve the use of a test administrator, counsel- ors cannot be sure of the circumstances under which the test was taken (e.g., Did the ex- aminee understand the instructions? Did he or she work independently in answering the items? Was he or she distracted in any way?). Because the counselor is not present at the time of the test interpretation, the counselor is not able to discern how clients react emo- tionally to the results or how they will integrate the information into their lives. There are also issues in determining appropriate accommodations for examinees with disabilities.

There is a continuing need for the ethical and professional use of these tests supported by reliability and validity. For example, the growth of career resources on the Internet has resulted in many short career interest quizzes and brief personality measures that have no evidence of norms, reliability, or validity (Mallen, Vogel, Rochlen, & Day, 2005). The coun- seling profession must make it clear that these unproven instruments are no substitute for true standardized assessment instruments.

Counseling Process Issues

Counselors and human development professionals typically use tests for problem-solving purposes to assist the client. In other settings, test results are not necessarily shared directly with clients; in counseling, however, test results are almost always discussed with clients because the goal of counseling is usually to assist clients in making choices and in develop- ing self-awareness. The client is seen as the primary user of test results, with the counselor acting more as a facilitator. Although counselors use the clinical interview and behavioral observation, tests provide an opportunity to obtain standardized information concerning in- dividual differences that can be useful both to plan counseling interventions and to promote clients’ understanding of themselves. Counselors help clients explore and identify their abili- ties, personality characteristics, patterns of interests, and values for the purpose of making choices and changes that can improve their sense of well-being or their lifestyles.

Personality inventories reveal information that can be useful in the counseling process, and interest and aptitude test results can assist in educational and vocational planning. Diagnostic tests in academic areas such as reading or arithmetic skills can help to iden- tify those who need special instruction in particular areas and to plan future educational programs. Because of criticisms leveled against psychological tests when used in selec- tion procedures (and perhaps in part because of some counselors’ own experiences with scholastic aptitude tests used for selection purposes), counselors occasionally develop a bias against psychological tests. They refuse to use them even in individual counseling programs, where they can often be valuable.

When using tests in counseling, the counselor must attempt to understand the client’s frame of reference. If the counselor is knowledgeable about tests, the counselor can then better help the client understand the information that tests can provide. In interpreting test results, the counselor must help clients understand their implications and their limitations and help clients integrate the test information into their self-perceptions and decision-making strategies.

It has been suggested (and even mandated by legislative action) that tests should not be used because certain disadvantaged groups make poor showings on them. In these situations, the test results often indicate symptoms of a societal ailment. When the tests

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55 Ethical, Legal, and Professional Considerations in Assessment •

reveal that the disadvantaged have not had the opportunity to learn certain concepts, there should be an attempt to provide these opportunities, not to dispose of the instruments that reveal such symptoms.

A criticism of using tests in counseling is that validity evidence is based on groups of individuals, and it is not possible to discern the validity of any test score for any one indi- vidual. It is in the counseling process that the counselor attempts to help clients determine the validity of that test score for that individual. To use tests properly in counseling, the counselor must know as much about the client and the client’s environment as possible. Counselors must also be well informed about tests and have a basic familiarity with them. Although they may not need to have a great deal of understanding regarding the technical aspects of test development and standardization, they do need to have a clear understand- ing of the general purposes of the particular tests they use, the uses to which they can be put, and the role these tests can play in the counseling process.

In the information age, assessment results will continue to provide important data needed for many decisions. In addition to individual personal and career decisions, there will be increased reliance on assessments to determine minimum skills and competencies for educational institutions, licensing and certifi cation, and personnel selection.

Test Anxiety

Another professional issue involves test anxiety, particularly for ability testing (see Chap- ter 10). Small but signifi cant negative relationships have been found between test anxiety and scores on ability tests. This relationship, of course, does not necessarily mean that high levels of anxiety cause lower test scores. Often those who have done poorly on these types of tests in the past are likely to experience more anxiety. Some studies suggest that a mod- erate amount of test anxiety can actually benefi t test scores, whereas a high level of anxiety may be detrimental. Individuals differ in the amount of anxiety that can be considered to be optimal for best test performance.

These results have been obtained when tests have been given under experimental condi- tions of high tension and of relaxed situations. For example, in an early study (French, 1962) on this topic, students took the test under normal conditions when the scores were to be reported to the institutions to which they applied and a second time on an equivalent form under instructions that the test results were to be used only for research purposes and not otherwise reported. The results showed essentially equal performance under both the anx- ious and relaxed conditions. The only difference was that certain students under the anxiety condition attempted more of the mathematical items and therefore achieved slightly higher scores on that subtest than they did under the relaxed condition. Apparently, under the re- laxed condition, they gave up a little earlier and therefore achieved slightly lower scores.

When test anxiety involves an excessive amount of worry and fear, clients may have diffi – culty thinking clearly or organizing their thoughts or may experience mental blanking. Inter- ventions that counselors can use include (a) emphasizing adequate preparation; (b) teaching cognitive–behavioral techniques, such as challenging irrational beliefs and thought stop- ping; (c) using desensitization techniques; and (d) encouraging relaxation exercises (Goonan, 2004). In general, testing procedures that are well organized, that are smoothly run, and that reassure and encourage should help to reduce the anxiety felt by highly anxious test takers.

Coaching

Coaching refers to test preparation services, provided in many ways such as tradition- al workshops, online services and software, practice tests, and books with test prepara- tion advice. The effect of coaching or practice on test scores is a controversial one that has received much attention and has been the subject of a number of studies. Obviously,

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56 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

practice or coaching that provides the answers to, for example, an individual IQ test such as the Stanford–Binet or WISC would invalidate the results as an accurate assessment. However, completion of a high school course in mathematics that results in a higher score on a mathematics achievement test probably accurately refl ects the student’s knowledge of mathematics outside the testing situation. The distinction therefore must be made between broad training and specifi c training or coaching focused on specifi c test items.

Coaching has been particularly controversial because of the existence of commercial coaching programs designed to raise scores on admissions tests such as the CEEB’s Scho- lastic Aptitude Test (SAT), the Graduate Record Examination (GRE), or the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT). These coaching programs advertise and almost promise substan- tially better test performance for those who enroll in their programs. Sackett, Borneman, and Connelly (2008) noted that some fi rms claim average score gains of 120–140 points on the SAT, with one fi rm guaranteeing a 200-point increase. Many of the studies reported have substantial weaknesses that usually include the absence of a noncoached but equally highly motivated control group that is comparable with the coached group in all important ways, including performance on initial tests.

Furthermore, as Sackett et al. (2008) argued, students typically improve signifi cantly upon retesting even if not participating in a coaching program—a result of a phenomenon known as a practice effect. A practice effect refers to familiarity with the types of problems and the problem-solving skills required. As a result, most of the testing programs—the College Board, the American College Testing (ACT) program, and the various professional school testing programs—now provide considerable information about the tests, including booklets with a number of practice test items. Thus, all applicants have the opportunity to take practice tests and to become familiar with the types of items that appear.

In sum, test scores can change, but how much is that change related to coaching specifi – cally? The CEEB has been particularly concerned for two reasons. First, if coaching could help students to improve their scores substantially, then the test results for all students would lose some validity. Second, the commercial coaching programs charge substantial fees and can represent a waste of money if coaching yields little improvement.

Although specifi c coaching provides little improvement in test performance over and above that achieved by a little familiarization and practice (and this is particularly true on the verbal portions of these tests), additional training in the form of coursework is likely to result in im- provement. In addition, a general review of the subject matter covered can substantially increase scores. For example, a student who has not taken any mathematics during the last two years in high school can improve scores on the mathematics portion of the SAT by reviewing the courses in algebra and geometry that were taken earlier. A college senior who has not taken any math- ematics in college since the freshman year can also improve his or her scores on the quantitative portion of the GRE by reviewing the mathematical and algebraic concepts learned in high school and as a college freshman. A moderate score increase can be gained by reviewing basic skills in the area being tested, taking as many as four or fi ve full-length practice tests with standard time limits, and paying attention to item format, pacing, and priority setting (Rubinstein, 2004). The best results are found when the coaching occurs not just before a major assessment but over lon- ger periods and when incorporated into regular classroom instruction (Crocker, 2005).

Counselors often receive questions from students, parents, and those involved in the selection and interpretation of such scores regarding the effi cacy of coaching programs and other review procedures. They need to be cognizant of the effects of different types of training and other activities on test performance.

Chapter Summary

Some of the criticisms of psychological testing and assessment and some of the attacks against their use in educational institutions and employment situations have had construc-

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57 Ethical, Legal, and Professional Considerations in Assessment •

tive effects. Increased awareness of the utility and limitations of testing has resulted in the need for more carefully trained users of test results as the personal and social consequenc- es of testing have become increasingly apparent.

Psychological tests and other types of assessments serve many purposes for various mental health professionals. Counselors use tests primarily to assist individuals in devel- oping their potential. Test results are designed to be used by the clients themselves—and only in the ways that they decide to make use of the test results or not to make use of them. In counseling, tests are not used by others to make decisions for or against a client. By using tests ethically, appropriately, and intelligently, counselors can assist their clients to understand their problems, make use of their potential, function more effectively, make more effective decisions, and live more satisfying lives.

In this chapter ethical guidelines and assessment standards available to counselors as they engage in their work with clients were presented. These documents are provided by the ACA and its divisions, NBCC, JCTP, and other professional collaborations, including that of the AERA, APA, and NCME. Counselors are encouraged to review both general guidelines as well as those—as available—geared toward their specialty areas. Key public laws and court decisions were also discussed in this chapter. The chapter concludes with several professional issues in assessment: testing and technology, counseling process is- sues, test anxiety, and coaching.

Review Questions

1. What are the major ethical guidelines and assessment standards available to coun- selors today?

2. How might your work as a counselor be affected specifi cally by public law and court decisions outlined in Table 3.2?

3. What are the benefits of using technology in assessing clients? What are the challenges?

4. What are some of the controversies surrounding coaching? How would you approach the discussion with your clients?

5. What are some strategies for engaging in the assessment process ethically?

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25

The Assessment Process

chapter

2

Assessment, no matter the setting in which it is used, serves to provide clinical informa- tion that assists both counselors and clients. This chapter provides information about the types of assessment methods available to counselors. Then, two types of assessment are discussed: the assessment process with clients and assessment of counseling outcomes.

Test Your Knowledge

Match the items in the right column with the most appropriate component of the assessment process in the left column:

1. Test Selection

2. Test Administration

3. Test Interpretation

4. Communication of Findings

5. Outcome Assessments

Types of Assessment Methods In Chapter 1 four major assessment categories were discussed: intelligence, ability, career, and personality assessment. There are several types of assessment methods that can be found within those categories. This section fi rst outlines three major distinctions in assessments: group versus individual assessment, standardized versus nonstandardized assessment, and

a. A counselor reviews and applies scoring procedures.

b. A counselor presents a conprehensive picture using several assessment data sources.

c. A client completes a satisfaction form at the end of a comprehensive session.

d. A counselor and client consider various assessment methods.

e. A counselor attends closely to testing conditions.

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26 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

speed versus power tests. Then, specifi c assessment types are described: rating scales, projec- tive techniques, behavioral observations, interviews, biographical measures, and physiologi- cal measures. Some assessment categories, such as intelligence and ability, typically involve standardized power tests. Other categories, such as career and personality, are more likely to contain a wider range of assessment methods.

Group Versus Individual Assessment

Some assessments are designed to be administered to one individual at a time by a trained examiner; others can be administered to a group of people. Group assessments allow in- formation to be obtained from many people within a short period of time at relatively little cost, whereas individual assessments permit counselors to adapt the test administration to the needs of the client. Individual assessments must be used with certain populations, such as young children or people with particular disabilities. Individual assessments per- mit observational data, such as the client’s language profi ciency and level of cooperation, to be obtained in addition to test scores.

Standardized Versus Nonstandardized Assessment

As discussed in Chapter 1, standardization is a defi ning feature of a test; thus, standard- ized tests must meet certain standards during the testing process. These standards include uniform procedures for test administration, objective scoring, and the use of representa- tive norm groups for test interpretation. Most standardized tests have clear evidence of their reliability and validity (see Chapter 5). Standardized tests can include the following assessment procedures, each of which is discussed in this book: intelligence tests, ability tests, personality inventories, interest inventories, and values inventories.

Nonstandardized assessments include rating scales, projective techniques, behavioral observations, and biographical measures, all of which are discussed below. Nonstandard- ized techniques produce results that are less dependable (i.e., less reliable and valid) com- pared with standardized techniques; however, they allow counselors to consider aspects of behavior or the environment not covered by traditional psychological tests. Counselors must be concerned not only about the dependability of test results, but also about the exhaustive- ness of the results (Cronbach & Gleser, 1965). Tests that provide highly dependable informa- tion often describe only a small part of the information a counselor needs. Nonstandardized assessments provide less dependable information but can nonetheless aid counselors in ob- taining information on topics that would be missed by formal testing procedures.

Some researchers have conceptualized nonstandardized techniques in assessment as qualitative assessment. Qualitative assessment involves informal and fl exible procedures often used in individual and group counseling. This type of assessment focuses largely on increasing client self-awareness within a session. Some examples of qualitative assessments include simulation exercises, projective techniques, and card sorts. L. Goldman (1992) and Okocha (1998) provide more specifi c examples of qualitative assessment methods.

Speed Versus Power Tests

Some ability tests place a heavy emphasis on speed of response and are known as speed tests. These tests are homogenous in content and often consist of a large number of easy items that a person must complete quickly. Examples of speed tests with relatively short time limits include fi nger and manual dexterity tests and clerical speed and accuracy tests. In contrast, power tests contain items of varying diffi culty, most of which the person is expected to complete within the time limits. If 90% of the people for whom the test is de- signed can complete the test within the time limits, the test can be described as a power test. Although speed can still be a factor for some students on power tests, speed would not

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27 The Assessment Process •

have much infl uence on the total score for most students. Most intelligence tests, scholastic aptitude tests, and achievement tests are basically power tests.

Rating Scales

Rating scales, which provide subjective estimates of various behaviors or characteristics based on the rater’s observations, are a common method of assessment. Rating scales include self-ratings, ratings of others, and ratings of the environment. They often provide a series of items and scoring criteria and are frequently useful as pre- and posttest evaluations of some behavior or attitude.

Because of their subjectivity, rating scales have a number of disadvantages. Three com- mon errors associated with rating scales are (a) halo effect, (b) error of central tendency, and (c) leniency error. In the case of the halo effect, raters show a tendency to generalize from one aspect of the client to all other aspects. For example, if a person is friendly, that person may also be rated highly in unrelated areas such as intelligence, creativity, lead- ership, and motivation. The error of central tendency describes the tendency to rate all people as “average” or near the middle of the rating scale. The leniency error refers to the tendency to rate the characteristics of people more favorably than they should be rated.

To control for such errors, raters are sometimes asked to rank individuals relative to another on each rating scale. As an alternative, raters may be forced to distribute their ratings across the entire rating scale according to the normal curve or a similar system. When these techniques are applied to a large number of people, they prevent ratings from bunching up in the middle of the distribution or at the top end of the distribution. Kenrick and Funder (1988) offered the following suggestions for improving the validity of ratings: (a) use raters who are thoroughly familiar with the person being rated, (b) require multiple behavioral observations, (c) obtain ratings from more than one observer, (d) use dimensions that are publicly observable, and (e) identify behaviors for observation that are relevant to the dimension in question. These sugges- tions can help counteract limitations posed by the various sources of invalidity.

Examples of rating techniques include the semantic differential and situational tests. The semantic differential technique requires raters to rate concepts (e.g., “my job”) by means of a series of bipolar scales, or rank-order scales, where raters or clients assign numbers to items by priority level or relevance. Situational tests require the person to perform a task in a situation that is similar to the situation for which the person is being evaluated. For ex- ample, the in-basket technique requires candidates for an administrative position to respond to the daily tasks of an administrator by means of an in-basket (work assignment basket) that simulates the actual work assignments of administrators. Situational tests can often meet the conditions suggested by Kenrick and Funder (1988). For this reason, they often are benefi cial in predicting performance in a situation similar to that of the test. Situational tests are fre- quently used to assess leadership or management skills.

Projective Assessments

Projective assessments use vague or ambiguous stimuli to which people must respond. Because the stimuli (e.g., inkblots, ambiguous pictures, and incomplete sentences) are vague, people tend to make interpretations of the stimuli that reveal more about them- selves than about the stimuli. They “project” their own personality onto the stimuli. Re- sponses are usually scored subjectively. Common projective techniques include the Ror- schach Inkblot Test, TAT, and Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank. The use of projective techniques in counseling is discussed further in Chapter 13.

Behavioral Observations

Behavioral observations refer to behaviors that can be observed and counted. The obser- vations are planned in advance or based on recent events. The behaviors, which usually

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28 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

occur in a natural setting, are monitored by the client, by an observer such as a partner or parent, or both. The observer usually records the frequency of a discrete behavior, for example, the number of “I” statements made in an interview or the number of conversa- tions initiated. Frequently, the duration of the response and the intensity of the behavior (as rated by the observer) are also recorded. Behavioral observations have the advantage of pertaining directly to a behavior that a client is concerned about. The behavior can usu- ally be included as part of a goal. The measure is directly related to the client’s treatment.

Interviews

Interviews can be structured, where a more standardized set of questions is used to solicit client data, or unstructured, where there are no preset list of questions and the counselor– client interaction guides future questions and probes. Structured interviews offer some standardization—and thus likely provide stability or reliability in test administration—yet they do not allow the counselor to probe responses for more detail. Unstructured inter- views generally allow for greater counseling rapport and further follow-up; however, the counselor may miss key assessment areas or spend more time on an irrelevant topic. Semi- structured interviews combine elements of both structured and unstructured interviews and can therefore address some of the disadvantages of each. Interviews are an important part of clinical assessment and are discussed further in Chapters 8 and 9.

Biographical Measures

Biographical measures refer to accomplishments or experiences as reported by the client or as refl ected in historical records. For example, a résumé, college application form, or work portfolio usually provides an extensive amount of biographical information. Biographi- cal measures differ from behavioral measures in that the observations are not planned in advance. They differ from rating scales in that the information is usually a matter of fact rather than a matter of judgment. Biographical data (biodata) include information maintained in cumulative records by schools or in personnel records by businesses, such as academic grades, extracurricular achievements, job promotions, hobbies, and volunteer work experiences. Biodata are usually collected by means of a written form or during the course of an initial interview with a client. Although this information is most often used in a qualitative manner, it can also be quantifi ed for assessment purposes (Dean, 2004; Os- wald, Schmitt, Kim, Ramsay, & Gillespie, 2004).

The value of biographical measures in assessment is expressed in the well-established psychological maxim: “The best predictor of future performance is past performance.” As a rule the best single predictor of college grades for an individual is usually that person’s high school grades. A person who has functioned well in a particular job in the past will probably perform well in related types of activities in the future.

On the one hand, biographical measures are both economical and effi cient. They can pro- vide information on topics such as leadership experiences or creative accomplishments that may be diffi cult to assess by other means. On the other hand, they may be inappropriate or diffi cult to interpret if the person’s experiences have been unusual or severely limited. Bio- graphical measures yield a broad range of information, but the meaning of the information requires additional interaction with the client or others familiar with the situation.

Physiological Measures

Physiological measures can be particularly helpful in understanding and monitoring cli- ent behavior because of the unique information that it provides. It enables a client’s con- dition, such as anxiety, to be assessed at a more basic level than that made possible by traditional assessments such as standardized tests and behavioral observations (Berntson

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29 The Assessment Process •

& Cacioppo, 2006). Measures such as heart rate, breathing rate, muscle contractions, and blood pressure, which are primarily involuntary in nature, can reveal information regard- ing a client’s condition that might otherwise be missed (Lawyer & Smitherman, 2004). Advances in instrumentation and procedures (e.g., biofeedback devices, cardiac monitor- ing systems, and alcohol biomarkers) and collaboration with other professionals in a team approach make it feasible to include such variables in the assessment process.

An Overview of the Assessment Process

With a basic understanding of the assessment methods that can be used in the assessment process, let’s discuss the assessment process itself. The assessment process is synonymous with the counseling process (see Figure 2.1). Both processes involve the continual dialogue between counselors and clients about presenting and underlying issues, the use of vari- ous tools to understand more fully those issues as well as attributes that may assist clients to address those issues, and the ongoing interpretation, refl ection, and communication of changes as new data enter the counseling relationship. To this end, counselors need to begin counseling with the end in mind: How do they see themselves communicating (and intervening) effectively with clients? How do early decisions about the types of tools selected affect the counseling relationship? In sum, assessment should be seen as a part of the counseling process and not as an interruption of it.

Before beginning the process of selecting assessment tools, counselors need to deter- mine a client’s readiness for change. Clients differ in their readiness for counseling and in their expectations of counseling. In their work with individuals with addictive behaviors, Prochaska, DiClemente, and Norcross (1992) noted fi ve stages of change experienced by a client: precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance. These same stages of change pertain to clients with a wide variety of problems (Petrocelli, 2002). Furthermore, these stages relate to the overall assessment process.

In the precontemplation stage, individuals are not especially aware of their problems and have no plans to change their behavior in the foreseeable future. Thus, they typically seek counseling at the insistence of someone else who is concerned about their problems. Re- search indicates that such individuals benefi t less from counseling and perceive their coun- seling relationship less favorably than do those in more advanced stages of change (Rochlen, Rude, & Baron, 2005). For the contemplation stage, individuals are aware of their problems but have not yet made a serious commitment to do anything about them. Individuals in this stage are considering making changes in their behavior sometime within the next six months; however, it may be much longer before they actually do make changes.

Figure 2.1 The Assessment Process

Communication of Findings

Test Selection

Client Readiness for Change

Counseling Relationship

Test Interpretation

Test Administration

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30 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

In the preparation stage, individuals have begun to make small changes in their prob- lematic behaviors, with the intention of making more complete changes within one month. Individuals reach the action stage when they successfully change their behavior for short periods of time. If changes persist for longer than six months, the client enters the mainte- nance stage, in which the goal is to maintain the behavioral and attitudinal changes that have occurred.

If a client is in one of the earlier stages of change (i.e., precontemplation or contempla- tion), the counselor may have diffi culty selecting appropriate tools as the client may not discuss problems accurately and may exhibit resistance during test administration, inter- pretation, and communication. As clients become more aware of their problems and begin making incremental changes, the assessment process becomes richer and increasingly uses multiple assessment methods to communicate data to facilitate treatment planning and intervention. Assessment of the client’s stage of change is crucial for determining the most effective treatment technique. As noted by Prochaska et al. (1992), different approaches should be used for clients in different stages.

Most clients recycle through some or all of the stages several times before successfully achieving long-term changes. Although recycling is the norm, most clients learn from their previous attempts so that they make faster progress through the cycle in subsequent at- tempts to resolve their problems. The University of Rhode Island Change Assessment, a 32-item questionnaire that assesses attitudes and behaviors associated with different stages of change, can be used to help determine a client’s readiness for change (P. J. Cohen, Glaser, & Calhoun, 2005).

Test Selection

Test selection refers to the decision-making process counselors use throughout the coun- seling relationship to aid in client evaluation and treatment planning, using a wide range of assessment methods. If at all possible, clients should actively participate in selecting the tests that will be used in counseling. From a therapeutic point of view, clients should col- laborate in deciding what questions they wish to answer by the use of tests or other assess- ment procedures. If convinced of the tests’ usefulness, clients may be more motivated to do their best on ability tests and to be accurate and truthful in responding to items on interest and personality inventories. By having participated in the decisions to use the tests, clients are also more likely to accept the results and interpretations with less defensiveness. They can be more objective in their perception of the test results.

Individuals often approach tests with some anxiety, particularly aptitude and achieve- ment tests where they may fear failure. Anxiety regarding testing can infl uence the en- tire counseling process. Even interest and personality inventories can reveal aspects of a person’s character that may indicate weaknesses or undesirable features. To reduce the threatening aspects of tests, you should make clear to clients that the purpose of testing is to provide self-understanding, not evaluation or judgment. It is important to convey to clients the feeling that they will be accepted whatever the test results happen to be.

In the case of academic or career counseling, clients often feel dependent on tests. They perceive the counselor as an expert who will select tests that will tell them what to do. Active participation by clients in test selection helps to counteract overreliance on the counselor.

Generally, the client does not select specifi c assessment tools. That is a technical mat- ter that counselors must decide on the basis of their knowledge of assessments. Instead, the client helps to decide the types of assessments that can provide the information most useful for whatever actions or decisions are going to be made. Clients are not nearly as interested in specifi c characteristics of assessments as they are in the implications the re- sults will have for them. The types of tests are therefore described in a general fashion. For example, you should describe the Strong Interest Inventory to a client simply as “an inter-

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31 The Assessment Process •

est inventory that enables you to compare your likes and dislikes with those of people in different occupations.” You should not overwhelm the client with a detailed description of the instrument itself.

After you and a particular client have agreed on the type of test, you must decide which specifi c test would be best to use. In particular, you want to consider the test’s reliability, validity, normative data, and practicality for its intended purpose. Does the test possess suffi cient reliability and validity to answer the questions posed by the client and his or her situation? Does the test provide appropriate normative data for the client? Is the test easy to administer and score? How expensive is it? Is the reading level appropriate? Is this assessment procedure culturally appropriate for the client? Counselors can best answer these questions, which require specialized knowledge regarding the technical quality of different assessments.

When a client states a need for a test, the counselor should not necessarily take that statement at face value. For example, if a client requests a personality inventory, the coun- selor should explore the meaning of the request, not simply accept it. A particular client may be experiencing a signifi cant problem, such as anxiety or depression, that should be explored before tests are assigned. The client may be asking for help regarding a particular problem but having diffi culty revealing the problem or asking for help directly. The re- quest for tests serves as an avenue to get at the major problem.

Tests should not be used unnecessarily. Other sources of data in addition to tests should also be explored. In a college counseling center, little is gained by selecting scholastic ap- titude tests when records of college entrance tests, high school grades, and college grades are readily available. Other counseling agencies, of course, often start with no previous information. Nevertheless, counselors can fi rst attempt to explore with clients self-descrip- tions and previous experiences that may provide relevant information. Clients’ recall of previous experiences can provide a great deal of information either to supplement test results or to eliminate the need for particular tests.

At this stage of the assessment process, particularly at the beginning of counseling, tests are not the only assessment method to consider. For example, you may be interested in us- ing an initial clinical interview or preexisting biographical data. It is important to involve clients in this process if possible or at least to explain briefl y the purpose for collecting data using these methods. Now, let’s discuss how we obtain information about assessments to guide the selection process.

Sources of Information About Assessment Procedures After you understand a client’s orientation toward problem solving and thus assessment purpose, the test selection process now involves selecting the actual assessment tools. This section provides key information sources for locating and obtaining assessments. Your university library will likely have many of these sources in print or online format. After you review this section, complete Activity 2.1.

Mental Measurements Yearbook. The best general source of information about commercial tests is the Mental Measurements Yearbook (MMY) series. The MMY, now in its 18th edi- tion (Spies, Carlson, & Geisinger, 2010), provides access to information about commercially published tests and test reviews. The MMY also provides a reference list for each test. Oscar Buros, its fi rst editor, developed the MMY in 1938. The MMY is published every few years, and online access is available for MMY reviews 1985 to present. A key inclusion criterion for a test to appear in the MMY is that the test must be new or revised since the previous MMY edition. Critical reviews are not published for each test in each yearbook because each new volume is designed to add to, rather than replace, information found in prior volumes.

There are many ways to search for a test. If you have some information about a specifi c test, such as the TAT, you can search by its full name (i.e., Thematic Apperception Test), acronym, publisher, or author. If you do not have a specifi c test in mind, or do not have

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32 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

adequate information, you can search by test purpose, category, or intended population (age, grade level, gender); by individual versus group administration; by publication date; by MMY volume number; by number of available reviews; or by many other search fi elds. There are several indexes (e.g., test title, classifi ed subject, publisher, names of authors, publisher directory) as searchable options if you decide you would like to search the print version of the MMY (or Tests in Print, described next).

Tests in Print. Published initially in 1961 by the Buros Institute of Mental Measurements, Tests in Print (TIP, 8th ed.; Murphy, Geisinger, Carlson, & Spies, 2011) is designed to serve as a comprehensive index of all tests in the Buros system (and appearing in previous MMYs and other materials). The TIP provides descriptions and references of all tests in print, including those for commercial use. Specifi cally, for any test, TIP indicates test purpose, acronym, in- print status, cost, publisher and author information, intended population, administration and scoring information, and publication date. TIP also includes a list of tests that have gone out of print since its last edition. However, you will not fi nd test reviews such as in the MMY. Searching for a test is done in a manner similar to how you search in MMY.

Tests and Test Critiques. There are two other resources you may fi nd useful as you are searching for tests. Tests is a more concise reference to test descriptions for thousands of tests in psychology, education, and business. Tests are arranged alphabetically by category. It is updated annually and contains similar information to the previously discussed references, with the exception of psychometric data and test reviews. Test Critiques is designed as a sup- plement to Tests and provides more extensive test descriptions, helpful information about the testing process, and test reviews. These resources are available from ProEd Publishers.

Other Test Information Resources. In addition to the four major references above, follow- ing are some other ways to locate test information:

• ETSTestLink (http://www.ets.org/test_link/about): This site lists the Education Testing Service’s (ETS’s) collection of 25,000 tests since 1900, with about 1,000 tests available for purchase directly from ETS.

• Buros Test Reviews Online (http://unl.edu/buros/): This site contains test reviews as they appear from the MMY 9th edition to the present. Thus, this is an online re- source for the MMY and TIP.

• Directory of Unpublished Experimental Mental Measures (B. A. Goldman & Mitchell, 2007): Volume 9 of the directory provides information on noncommercial psychologi- cal measures used in research from the fi elds of psychology, sociology, and education.

• A Counselor’s Guide to Career Assessment Instruments (Whitfi eld et al., 2009): This resource provides descriptions and publisher information of over 300 career as- sessment instruments, including comprehensive reviews of more than 50 widely used instruments.

• Journals: Counselors are most likely to fi nd information about assessment procedures pertinent to their work in the following counseling-related journals: Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, Counseling Outcome Research and Evaluation, Journal of Counseling & Development, The Career Development Quarterly, Journal of Counseling Psychology, Psychological Assessment, Journal of Personality Assessment, Journal of Career Assessment, and Assessment.

Locating Specifi c Assessments Once you have reviewed several of the above resources, you will need to contact a test publisher or author to obtain a specifi c commercially published assessment. Although there are a vast number of tests available in the United States and there is a constant stream of new tests and revisions of old tests on the market, most of the tests are pub- lished by a few large publishers, such as Psychological Assessment Resources, Consult- ing Psychologists Press, and Pearson Assessments. All major publishers list their prod-

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33 The Assessment Process •

ucts through catalogs and update test information regularly, including costs, ancillary materials, and alternate test forms. For a fee, most test publishers will provide qualifi ed test users with a specimen set of a test that includes the test itself, answer sheets, scor- ing keys, and a test manual. See Appendix A for links to commonly used tests, listed by publisher. For unpublished tests and other assessment methods, you will likely need to contact directly an author in a journal or book.

Activity 2.1 Locating Assessments Select a topic of interest and testing purpose and use at least two of the sources described above to uncover information about assessments for that topic and purpose. What sources did you use? What information did you fi nd in each? How do the sources compare with one another? Discuss in small groups the benefi ts and challenges of various assessment sources.

• • •

Test Administration

Test administration, or administration of assessment tools in general, will vary as a pro- cess depending on the audience, purpose, and format. For example, administering an in- dividual test as opposed to a group test assumes a greater degree of familiarity with the test instructions and procedures and increased interaction with a client. With group tests, greater test anxiety may be a factor.

With respect to purpose, standardized tests must be administered in a specifi ed man- ner under controlled conditions with uniform instructions and materials. Counselors who administer the test must be familiar with the instructions and other aspects of the admin- istration. The knowledge necessary for administering a test differs greatly depending on the test. On the one hand, standardized scholastic aptitude tests can be administered with relatively little training. On the other hand, the knowledge and skill needed to administer individual intelligence tests require extensive coursework and practicum experience.

Furthermore, various test formats (paper and pencil versus computer based) yield unique administration considerations. Computer-based testing allows greater fl exibility in test administration, briefer test administration time, and a greater degree of test standard- ization. However, some individuals may have trouble using the computer. Students have reported diffi culty in responding to items presented on the computer where they cannot easily go back to check previous answers or leave an item blank for later consideration. Computer anxiety may interfere with some people’s performance on computer-adminis- tered tests, especially older people, women, and individuals from a lower socioeconomic background (Bozionelos, 2004; Meloun, 2005). A study of eighth-grade students found that familiarity with the computer was signifi cantly correlated with performance on comput- er-based mathematics and writing tests after controlling for paper-based performance in these subjects (Sandene et al., 2005). Counselors should make certain that examinees are familiar and comfortable with using the computer. Clients should be given the opportu- nity to practice responding to computer-based items prior to testing.

Inexperienced test administrators often do not fully appreciate the importance of the test administrator’s role. Irregularities identifi ed in test administrations in school settings in- clude timing the test inaccurately, altering answer sheets, coaching, teaching the test, scoring tests incorrectly, recording test data incorrectly, and cheating by students (Gay, 1990). Most test manuals provide detailed instructions for administering a particular test, and such in- structions should be followed exactly. It is the standardization of instructions that makes it possible to compare one person’s scores with those of another or with different groups.

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34 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

In addition, counselors need to be aware of the expectancy effect or Rosenthal effect during test administration. This effect relates to the notion that data sometime can be af- fected by what the administrator expects to fi nd. On a related note, counselors who seek to confi rm negative stereotypes, intentionally or unintentionally, during test administration infl uence test performance. This effect is known as stereotype threat and is likely a con- tributing factor to long-standing racial and gender gaps in academic performance (Steele & Aronson, 1995; Steele, Spencer, & Aronson, 2002). Stereotype threats can be a factor when individuals of a minority status (e.g., women, racial/ethnic minorities) are instructed that a test’s purpose is to assess a construct (e.g., math skills, intelligence) they internalize as lacking in themselves, or when those individuals are simply in a testing environment with others who possess positive stereotypes for a particular construct.

Thus, in administering tests counselors must elicit the interest and cooperation of the test taker. In obtaining rapport, counselors attempt to convince test takers that the results will be useful and that they are not wasting their time in a task that will be of little consequence or value to them. Usually clients are cooperative if they have voluntarily sought counseling. If they are being tested against their will, perhaps because of a court order or because they feel that the test information is not important, good rapport may be diffi cult to establish.

Individuals should be informed prior to testing about conditions that may improve their performance on aptitude or achievement tests, such as taking a practice test or re- viewing certain material (American Counseling Association [ACA], 2005). During the test administration itself, counselors should encourage clients to follow instructions carefully and to perform as well as they can. With small children, tests may be presented as a game. For interest or personality inventories, clients should be encouraged to answer honestly and frankly in order to preclude invalid results. Counselors should be familiar with the test being administered so that clients do not doubt the administrator’s competence. Self- confi dence, together with a warm and friendly manner, should be exhibited.

The testing environment should be suitable for test administration, with adequate seat- ing, lighting, and ventilation and an appropriate temperature. It should be free from noise, interruptions, and other distractions. Time limits should be followed exactly, and measures should be taken to prevent cheating. Factors, even minor ones, that can alter test perfor- mance should be recognized and minimized. These factors contribute to the error variance in test scores. Any problems in administering the test should be noted and taken into ac- count when interpreting the test results.

At times test administration procedures may need to be altered to take into account such matters as a client’s disability or language problems (AERA, APA, & NCME, 1999). Ac- commodations in test administration, such as additional time or the use of an interpreter, should be made if they can improve the opportunity for the client to demonstrate his or her abilities but not if they provide that client with an advantage over other test takers. Sometimes it is diffi cult to make this distinction, but the test administrator must make the best decision possible. Any alterations in administration procedures should be noted and included in the report of test results.

Test Interpretation and Communication of Findings

Although test interpretation and communication of fi ndings is discussed in more detail in Chapters 6 and 15, respectively, it is important to mention these components briefl y in an overall discussion of the assessment process. Test interpretation, which includes evalua- tion of data from a variety of methods, is much more than simply scoring an assessment tool. The more intentional counselors are about infusing interpretation in the general coun- seling process, the more therapeutic the assessment process can be. The manner in which tools can aid in self-awareness and decision making can ultimately provide greater insight in counseling and save time and money for clients.

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Communication of fi ndings can occur both during and after test interpretation. In fact, when counselors communicate with clients as they interpret assessment data, the process can yield a richer dialogue and better treatment planning. Communication can occur in- formally, such as during a counseling interaction, or more formally, such as the case with a written report for individual or group settings. During the communication process, it may become apparent that additional assessment is needed. If so, counselors may opt to cycle through the assessment process again.

There are a few general considerations related to test interpretation, specifi cally related to scoring procedures. Tests can be scored by hand or by computer. Tests that are scored by hand often involve the use of a scoring template that can be placed over the answer sheet to identify incorrect responses. In some cases, clients score their own tests by the use of “self-scorable” answer sheets that reveal the correct answers behind a seal on the reverse side of the answer sheet. Examples of measures for which clients score their own answer sheets include the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and the Self-Directed Search. If more than a few tests or scales are involved, hand scoring can become time consuming, tedious, and subject to error. If at all possible, hand-scored tests should also be scored by another person to ensure accuracy of results.

Compared with hand scoring, computer scoring is more rapid, accurate, and thorough. The computer makes it possible to undertake elaborate test-scoring programs such as those required for the Strong Interest Inventory and the Campbell Interest and Skill Survey that would be virtually impossible to do by hand. For the most part, the computer is an exceed- ingly effi cient scoring machine and at times may appear to be infallible; however, it is im- portant to remember that scoring errors can and do occur, especially at the programming level. In one large statewide testing operation, a number of schools received inaccurate test reports, which led to demoralization of teachers and students until the errors were de- tected and corrected (Tareen, 2005). In a national testing program, thousands of SAT exams were found to have been scored incorrectly (after two students asked to have their tests rescored) during one examination period, possibly because of wet weather conditions that affected the accuracy of the computer scoring program (Setoodeh, 2006).

If test results appear questionable, they should be rechecked. In addition to specifi c scores, computers can also generate test interpretations by means of scoring rules, or al- gorithms, stored in the computer’s memory. Computer-based test interpretations (CBTIs), such as those that have been developed for the MMPI, provide a second opinion that counselors can use both to create and to test hypotheses about clients. Compared with counselor interpretations, CBTIs that have been derived from extensive databases by test experts can be more comprehensive, objective, consistent, and reliable (Sampson, Purgar, & Shy, 2003). Despite their apparent advantages, CBTIs can also pose a number of prob- lems. In some cases, the developers of CBTIs lack appropriate qualifi cations. In other cases, the interpretations can be too general (e.g., they may be statements that are true for just about everybody) or they may contradict one another. Frequently, they are accorded “un- realistic credibility” because of their computer origin (Sampson et al., 2003). To prevent misuse of CBTIs, a counselor should not rely on them unless he or she possesses suffi cient knowledge about the assessment instrument itself to be able to evaluate independently the accuracy of the interpretations. In addition, clients should not be expected to be able to use CBTI reports without the aid of a counselor unless the reports have been specifi cally validated as “self-interpreting” (National Career Development Association, 1997).

A test can have well-established validity for various uses, but that does not necessarily ensure the validity of a CBTI derived for that test. The scoring rules on which the CBTIs are based are often a trade secret so that it is diffi cult to evaluate how adequately they have been developed. Counselors must examine CBTIs in light of other information that they have been able to collect about the client. They should use their best professional judgment to take into account any individual or situational factors that could alter the CBTI for a

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36 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

particular client. As with any test data, the results should be viewed as hypotheses that need to be confi rmed or revised on the basis of other information that is collected regard- ing the particular client.

Now that you have reviewed the assessment process components, it’s time to consider how you might approach a hypothetical client at each phase. Review Case Example 2.1, the Case of Jeffrey, and respond to the accompanying questions. First, consider some tips in the assessment process.

Tip Sheet

The Assessment Process

✓ Successful testing is being prepared. Have a script (written or memorized) for ev- ery part of the assessment process to minimize any negative effects assessment may have on the counseling process.

✓ Involve clients in the test selection process as much as possible. ✓ Explore with clients ways that assessment data can be useful to increase intrinsic

motivation. Remind them that the primary purpose of assessment is not evaluation and judgment but, rather, a tool for client exploration to assist in making decisions.

✓ Review several sources of information before selecting an assessment tool. Ensure that the tool serves an appropriate function, possesses relevant support, and is suit- able for your clientele.

✓ Gain knowledge about an assessment tool, including familiarity with test content, purpose, psychometric properties, and test administration and scoring procedures.

✓ Use multiple assessment methods to create a more comprehensive picture for the client.

✓ Present to clients the assessment purpose and description in the most clear, concise, and interesting manner.

✓ For administration of individual tests, memorize the exact verbal instructions if pos- sible. Have materials ready for use and easy to reach.

✓ Maintain the security of testing materials before and after test administration. ✓ In group testing double-check that you have all materials (e.g., answer sheets,

pencils, test booklets) available for the testing day. ✓ Administer and interpret an assessment tool exactly as stated in the manual unless there is

an empirically supported reason for altering (e.g., test bias, accommodations for disability). ✓ Consider testing conditions that may infl uence test scores before administering the

test. Conditions may include location of room, noise level, seating arrangement, lighting, work space, quality of instructions, rapport between counselor and client, and amount of time needed to complete assessment.

✓ Refl ect on how cultural and other demographic differences impact the assessment relationship. Such issues may include how familiar individuals are with a test ad- ministrator, differences among test takers, stereotype or expectancy effects, presence of a disability, or experience with different testing formats.

✓ When introducing an assessment, show enthusiasm and interest in the process and motivate clients to respond as best as they can. Reiterate the value and purpose of assessment in general as well as the particular tool being used.

✓ Evaluate scoring procedures carefully and assess for strengths and limitations. ✓ Communicate assessment data in an empowering way, discussing assessment

strengths and limitations for aiding a particular client. ✓ Present assessment data in the context of other available information about a par-

ticular client, highlighting that data are just one type of client data to consider. ✓ In addition to communicating overall fi ndings to clients, the counselor should also

process with clients their reactions to the assessment data.

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37 The Assessment Process •

Case Example 2.1

Jeffrey

Jeffrey is a 16-year-old White male in 11th grade. He lives with his father James (age 49), his mother Linda (age 48), an older brother Keith (age 18), and a younger brother Max (age 14). His parents are both teachers in the same high school as Jeffrey.

Jeffrey’s parents made the appointment with you, a professional school counselor at the same school as Jeffrey and his parents. Jeffrey is currently in danger of failing 11th grade, with grades of mostly Ds and Fs, except for a B in computer class. His parents are frus- trated because they do not know how to motivate him.

In addition, a teacher found a notebook with written song lyrics with references to guns and dying. Asked for an explanation, Jeffrey just shrugged and said he was bored in class.

Jeffrey previously saw a counselor during elementary school after he seemed to be hav- ing trouble fi tting in socially in class.

Refl ect on the following:

• How might you begin the assessment process? Who would you involve, and how would you involve them?

• What are assessment methods you might consider during the test selection phase? • How and when might test administration occur? • What factors may be salient for communication of fi ndings? • How do you think the assessment process in general might benefi t Jeffrey?

• • •

Assessing the Assessment Process: Evaluating Counseling Outcomes

At the conclusion of counseling, as well as at intervals throughout counseling, it is important to evaluate its effectiveness. Has counseling achieved the purposes for which it was sought? As the last step in the problem-solving model in Chapter 1 indicated, counselors need to determine whether a particular client’s problem has been resolved or reduced. Engaging in outcome assessment in counseling helps to determine if counseling was effective for the client. Furthermore, outcome assessment can yield important information about the general effi cacy of a counseling intervention, adding to counseling scholarship in general.

Outcome assessments should be related to the purpose of counseling, appropriate for the client’s development level, valid and reliable for the purpose for which they are used, and sensitive enough to show change at the level expected (Whiston, 2008). Counselors should use well-established instruments with adequate normative data to aid in the inter- pretation of a client’s scores (Leibert, 2006). When feasible, outcome assessments should use more than one source of feedback (e.g., client, counselor, and observer) and consider more than one outcome variable (e.g., changes in knowledge, understanding, and behav- ior). Counseling outcomes should take into account immediate, intermediate, and ulti- mate goals—such as a more positive attitude toward school, improved grades, and school graduation—and should include evaluations taken at different points in time. As a practi- cal matter, outcome assessments should be brief, be easy to administer and score, and be cost-effective.

Typical outcome assessment instruments include client satisfaction forms, client self- report scales, client interviews, and rating scales. Outcome instruments vary in their degree of specifi city. Global measures focus on such matters as general well-being or career maturity. Specifi c measures assess particular factors such as level of depression or career planning diffi culties. Some examples of the different types of outcome measures are provided below.

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38 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

Client Satisfaction Forms

Client satisfaction forms assess the degree to which counseling fulfi lled the client’s expecta- tions. A number of client satisfaction scales or rating forms have been developed for local use, especially in medical or mental health settings. These forms provide valuable feedback for administrators and professionals; however, they pose diffi culties in interpretation because they lack standardization.

Two standardized measures of client satisfaction—one global and the other specifi c—have been developed at the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF). The UCSF Client Sat- isfaction Questionnaire–8 (CSQ-8) provides a global measure of a client’s satisfaction with mental health services received (Attkisson & Greenfi eld, 2004). The UCSF Service Satisfaction Scale–30 (SSS-30), which uses 30 items rather than the 8 items used by the CSQ-8, provides a more detailed measure of client satisfaction. The SSS-30 yields scores on several subscales— such as counselor manner and skill, offi ce procedures, and access to services—as well as an overall satisfaction score (Greenfi eld & Attkisson, 2004). These instruments have extensive norms that can be used to interpret the results. They can be supplemented with open-ended questions regarding the client’s reaction to treatment.

Client satisfaction can also be inferred by means of therapeutic relationship scales, such as the Working Alliance Inventory, that measure the degree to which the client and the counselor agree on counseling goals and tasks and the extent to which they have bonded together for counseling purposes (Horvath & Greenberg, 1989). As a rule, the strength of the therapeutic alliance—as rated by the client, counselor, or observer—correlates signifi cantly with progress in counseling (Martin, Garske, & Davis, 2000).

Client Self-Report Scales

Client self-report scales are used to evaluate changes in a client’s status or functioning as perceived by the client. Many of the self-report inventories used in the initial stages of coun- seling to identify a client’s problems, such as Symptom Checklist–90 and Brief Symptom In- ventory discussed in Chapter 8, can also be used later in counseling to evaluate progress in resolving these problems. In many ways, these instruments are ideal for outcome assessment because they provide comparable information at different points in time that can be used to show changes that occur during the course of counseling. Because of their brevity and broad focus, results from these instruments should not be relied on exclusively, but they can be used informally to judge progress and to guide the counseling process.

Several self-report measures have been designed specifi cally to assess the outcomes of coun- seling or therapy. These measures include the Outcome Questionnaire–45 (Lambert, Gregersen, & Burlingame, 2004), revised Behavior and Symptom Identifi cation Scale (Eisen, Normand, Be- langer, Spiro, & Esch, 2004), and Treatment Outcome Package (mental health symptoms and functional modules; Kraus, Seligman, & Jordan, 2005). All of these measures are short self-report questionnaires with several subscales that are sensitive to changes in a client’s symptoms or be- haviors. They all provide reliable and valid measures of a client’s functioning and normative data to aid in interpretation of scores.

Depending on the issues involved, other brief measures such as the Beck Depression In- ventory (Beck, 1996), Beck Anxiety Inventory (Beck & Steer, 1993), and Holland’s My Voca- tional Situation (Holland, Daiger, & Power, 1980) can be used to assess progress in specifi c areas. These instruments are each discussed in chapters dealing with these particular topics. Self-monitoring of one’s behavior, such as alcohol drinking, can also be helpful in assessing counseling outcomes (W. R. Miller & Muñoz, 2005).

Client Feedback Interviews

Client feedback interviews can also be used to obtain feedback regarding a client’s prog- ress. Talmon (1990) described a brief telephone interview that he used routinely with cli-

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39 The Assessment Process •

ents who had been seen for brief counseling. Clients were asked in the intake process for permission to contact them by telephone sometime about three months after the end of counseling. At that point, they were asked 12 questions regarding such matters as their satisfaction with counseling (5-point scale), change in the problem they presented at coun- seling (5-point scale), what they found to be most helpful or harmful, and what recom- mendations they wished to make to the counselor for improvement of counseling. This procedure lets clients know that the counselor cares about them and their situation and provides counselors with helpful information (both quantitative and qualitative in nature) regarding their counseling procedures.

Ratings by Counselors and Other Observers

In addition to feedback from the client, evaluation of a client’s functioning can also be sought from the counselor or others in a position to judge the client’s behavior, such as parents, spouses, teachers, supervisors, coworkers, or trained observers. Counselors can provide a more detailed, specifi c description of client outcome by the use of instruments such as the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale for major psychopathology (Lachar, Espadas, & Bailley, 2004) or the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale, a measure of depression based on interview data (Hamilton, 1967). Teachers, parents, or others can use observer rating forms such as the Conners’ Rating Scales–Revised for Teachers and Parents to evaluate problem behavior in children (Conners, 1997). Observation of a client’s behavior by someone close to the client is important in obtaining information regarding the progress of clients who cannot accurately or consistently report this information themselves.

In some situations, counselors are required to complete the Global Assessment of Func- tioning (GAF) Scale (Axis V on the DSM-IV-TR) for every client they see, often at both the beginning and end of counseling. This measure provides a single score, ranging from 1 to 100, regarding the client’s psychological, social, and occupational functioning (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). The GAF scale is anchored with behavioral descriptions at each 10-point interval; for example, ratings in the “71 to 80” range indicate transient symptoms (such as diffi culty concentrating after a family confl ict) or slight impairment in functioning (such as falling behind in one’s work on a temporary basis).

Tailor-Made Measures

Some outcome measures, such as Goal Attainment Scaling (GAS) or the Target Complaints (TC) procedure, are designed specifi cally for individual clients to assess their progress in therapy. With GAS, the counselor or other expert judges establish specifi c goals for a cli- ent based on his or her concerns (Kiresuk et al., 1994). The judges then rate on a 5-point scale the client’s success in attaining these goals at the end of counseling. This measure is a reliable and valid measure of progress for clients receiving time-limited psychotherapy (Shefl er, Canetti, & Wiseman, 2001).

The TC measure requires clients (with the help of a counselor) to identify three specifi c complaints that they wish to address in counseling and then to rate these complaints ac- cording to their severity (Battle et al., 1966). Counseling outcomes are assessed in terms of reductions in the severity of a client’s complaints. This method has been used effectively to evaluate the success of clients in resolving problems during counseling (Kivlighan, Multon, & Patton, 2000).

Use of Outcome Measures

Outcome measures can be helpful at three levels: (a) individual, (b) agency, and (c) profes- sion. At the individual level, both the client and counselor can benefi t. Clients can profi t by seeing progress in resolving issues and improvement in well-being. Counselors can use feedback from clients to learn what counseling approaches are most effective with different

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40 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

types of clients. At the agency level, information obtained from clients can help in establish- ing and modifying counseling programs and in gaining support from those who fund the programs. Finally, for the profession as a whole, outcome studies can lead to more successful evidence-based treatments and strengthen its viability and credibility overall (Leibert, 2006).

When outcome studies are undertaken by the combined resources of a professional orga- nization or a counseling agency, it is possible to conduct a much more thorough and compre- hensive evaluation of counseling effectiveness than would otherwise be possible. Although it may not be feasible for all counselors to be involved in a comprehensive outcome study, some effort should be undertaken to evaluate the effectiveness of all counseling interven- tions. If only one outcome measure can be obtained, it is probably best to obtain it directly from the client, possibly at the conclusion of counseling or shortly thereafter. As an informal procedure, counselors can readminister a client self-report form such as the Inventory of Common Problems or the Beck Depression Inventory–II to note changes. They can also ask clients at that point what was most helpful, what was least helpful, and what recommenda- tions they would make for future counseling. The use of a brief, semistructured interview such as that proposed by Talmon (1990; see above) can be especially productive for counsel- ors evaluating the effectiveness of their counseling on an individual basis.

Chapter Summary

The assessment process in counseling relates to engaging and collaborating with clients throughout the counseling relationship as well as evaluating the counseling relationship and interventions themselves. In this chapter several assessment methods were discussed and their use in the assessment process was presented. These methods include group and individual assessments, standardized and nonstandardized assessments, speed and power tests, rating scales, projective assessments, behavioral observations, interviews, biographi- cal measures, and physiological measures. Then, assessment process components were presented (test selection, test administration, test interpretation, and communication of fi ndings). Clients will be motivated to participate in assessment (and counseling) depend- ing on the stage of change in which they identify as well as the quality of the counseling relationship. In addition, there are several considerations at each phase of the assessment process that affect how clients receive and use assessment data. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion on outcome assessment and various assessment methods that may be useful to counselors.

Review Questions

1. How might the various assessment methods presented in this chapter infl uence the assessment process?

2. How does a client’s stage of change benefi t and limit each phase of the assessment process?

3. Compare the major sources of information for tests. What do you see as the most useful for you? How do they complement one another?

4. How do paper-and-pencil and computer assessments compare in terms of the as- sessment process? When might one be more useful than the other?

5. In what ways are outcome assessments helpful for clients? Counselors? The scien- tifi c community?

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3

Use of Assessment in Counseling

chapter

1

What is assessment? What are the different ways counselors use assessment in the work they do? How did assessment become such an important part of counseling? In this chap- ter several key assessment terms are defi ned, and the purpose and uses of assessment are described. Then, a brief history of assessment is provided followed by a discussion of cur- rent attitudes toward assessment use. Finally, the chapter concludes with key questions and guiding principles of assessment in counseling.

Test Your Knowledge

Respond to the following items by selecting T for “True” or F for “False”:

□ T □ F 1. Assessment aids counseling by providing information for the client alone.

□ T □ F 2. Assessment and test are synonymous terms. □ T □ F 3. Early group tests were used to assess intelligence and ability

among World War I recruits. □ T □ F 4. A problem-solving model is a useful method for

conceptualizing the purpose of assessment. □ T □ F 5. Personality assessment is the most signifi cant area counselors

are known for in assessment development.

Introduction to Assessment

Assessment is a part of everyone’s daily lives. In any instance where someone has to make a judgment or solve a problem based on an outcome or information gained, assessment

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4 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

is occurring. Individuals are recipients and participants of assessment data. Think back to your early memories of being assessed, tested, or evaluated in some way. Did it relate to a spelling or history test in school? Did it involve a report card you brought home? Were you being assessed for a disability or placed in a gifted program? Did you feel sad or anxious about something? Now, think of maybe more recent memories: taking a college or graduate entrance exam, discussing with a physician or counselor some symptom or issue you are experiencing, selecting a career path, interviewing for a job, even trying out a new recipe or working on a home improvement project, to name a few. No matter the memories—posi- tive or negative—assessment occurs in various settings: schools, colleges, and universities; homes; health care settings; agencies; neighborhoods; communities; and so on.

It is not surprising, then, that assessment has always played an important part in coun- seling. From its inception, the fi eld of counseling typically involved helping students with academic and career planning on the basis of test results. In recent years, the role of coun- seling (and the nature of assessment) has broadened to address a variety of concerns, such as self-esteem, shyness, personal growth, family and couple relationships, sexual identity, sexual abuse, cross-cultural communication, substance abuse, eating disorders, depres- sion, anxiety, and suicidal ideation. Counselors also rely on assessment data for program planning and evaluation. Clients use assessment results to understand themselves better and to make plans for the future. The assessment process can be therapeutic in itself by helping clients to clarify goals and gain a sense of perspective and support.

Key Assessment Terms

There are many terms associated with assessment in counseling. In this section fi ve key terms (i.e., assessment, tests, measurement, variable, and psychometrics) are presented. Throughout the text information on terms associated with these are outlined. Before defi n- ing these terms, it is important to defi ne what the term client means throughout the text. A client may be an individual or group of individuals being assessed in various settings, such as counseling agencies, private practice settings, schools, colleges and universities, and career centers. A client can also refer to places or settings in general, such as in cases of program evaluation (e.g., a character education program). Finally, a client may be as- sociated with objects or things such as dropout rates, divorce rates, violence, trauma, or neighborhoods. In essence, clients are people, places, or things.

Assessment

Assessment is an umbrella term for the evaluation methods counselors use to better un- derstand characteristics of people, places, and things. Other terms used interchangeably in counseling to describe assessment are appraisal and evaluation. For most purposes, as- sessment can be conceptualized in terms of problem solving (Brown-Chidsey, 2005; Lovitt, 1998; Nezu & Nezu, 1993). The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (American Educational Research Association [AERA], American Psychological Association [APA], & National Council on Measurement in Education [NCME], 1999) defi nes assessment as “any systematic method of obtaining information from tests and other sources, used to draw inferences about characteristics of people, objects, or programs” (p. 172). The fi rst part of the defi nition (“any systematic method of obtaining information from tests and other sources”) indicates that a broad range of evaluation methods—such as standardized tests, rating scales and observations, interviews, classifi cation techniques, and records—may be used as a means of obtaining data about clients. The second part of the defi nition (“used to draw inferences about characteristics of people, objects, or programs”) emphasizes the use of assessment data to help counselors understand their clients and the situations in which clients fi nd themselves. Collectively, these two defi nition parts refer to a broad process of tool selection, administration and interpretation of data to provide a basis for forming

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5 Use of Assessment in Counseling •

and testing hypotheses regarding the nature of a client’s issues, and possible treatment approaches. The assessment process is discussed in more depth in Chapters 2, 6, and 15.

Some of the common assessment categories discussed in this text are intelligence (Chap- ter 9), ability (Chapter 10), career (Chapters 11 and 12), and personality (Chapter 13). These categories include both formal and informal assessment methods (see Chapter 2). Follow- ing are brief defi nitions of each category:

• Intelligence assessment: evaluation of cognitive abilities such as communication, reasoning, abstract thought, learning, and problem solving. Intelligence has been defi ned in many ways, although intelligence assessment is primarily measured through tests geared toward more traditional defi nitions.

• Ability assessment: assessment of acquired information (achievement) or an ability to acquire information (aptitude) about a particular subject matter or domain. Ability assessments are typically used for educational purposes, although some career and intelligence assessments may also be categorized as ability measures.

• Career assessment: measure of a client’s career development process as well as the content domains of that process. Process-oriented variables include career readiness, concerns, planning, and maturity. Content domains involve career values and inter- ests inventories. Career assessment can involve individual tools or more comprehen- sive assessment programs.

• Personality assessment: examination of individual attributes, types, and traits re- lated to cognitions, emotions, actions, and attitudes. Personality assessment can be classifi ed as structured (objective) or unstructured (projective).

As you can see from these descriptions, assessment categories are not fi xed and can over- lap one another.

Tests

A test is a systematic and often standardized process for sampling and describing a behav- ior of interest for individuals or groups. Tests can measure past, present, and/or future be- havior or some refl ection or feeling toward a behavior of interest. Tests can be interpreted in reference to a test taker’s previous performance (self-referenced), some objective or criterion (criterion referenced), or that of a standardization sample (norm referenced). Standardization and test norms are discussed in more depth in Chapter 6.

Questionnaires and inventories, such as personality and interest inventories, elicit self- reports of opinions, preferences, and typical reactions to everyday situations. In practice, questionnaires and inventories also are often referred to as tests if they meet certain stan- dardization criteria.

Tests are only one aspect of assessment. Assessment is a more comprehensive activity than testing by itself because it includes the integration and interpretation of test results and other evaluation methods. In sum, assessment involves judgments based on quantita- tive and qualitative descriptions of client data from a variety of sources.

Measurement

Measurement is a description of the degree to which a client possesses some character- istic. Traditionally, measurement deals with quantitative units, such as those associated with length (e.g., meter, inch), time (e.g., second, minute), mass (e.g., kilogram, pound), and temperature (e.g., Kelvin, Fahrenheit). In the physical sciences, measurement has been described as the actual or estimated magnitude of quantity relative to another (see Mi- chell, 1997). The measurement concept has long been applied to the social sciences, such as when S. S. Stevens (1946) defi ned measurement as the assignment of numerals to objects or events according to some rule. These “rules” refer to scales of measurement (i.e., nominal,

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6 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

ordinal, interval, and ratio; see Chapter 5). In addition, measurement in social sciences relates to providing data that meet some criteria, and thus tests are administered to assess the degree to which criteria are met.

Variable

Another key term is variable, which gets assigned a label through measurement. A vari- able refers to a construct or concept that can take on more than one value. Values can be qualitative or quantitative. For example, qualitative variables can include groupings such as gender, ethnicity, sports team, and hair color; they tend to involve categorical variables. Quantitative variables might include continuous variables (i.e., variables measured on some continuum), such as test scores, age, and rank. In assessment, you will encounter sev- eral types of variables: independent variables (preexisting variable or variable able to be manipulated that is assumed to infl uence some outcome), dependent variables (construct affected by the independent variable; also known as an outcome or response variable), and extraneous variables (a “noise” variable that impacts a dependent variable yet is unrelated to the assessment process—also known as a confounding variable).

Psychometrics

Psychometrics is the study of measurement technique and theory. Although a lengthy dis- cussion is beyond the scope of this text, psychometricians have proposed common theories and techniques such as classical test theory, item response theory, Rasch modeling, factor analysis, and structural equation modeling. Classical test theory and its common concepts of measurement error, reliability, and validity are discussed in Chapter 5.

Purpose of Assessment in Counseling

Now that you have a basic understanding of the general terminology, let’s take a look at how and why assessment is used in counseling. Assessment is benefi cial in counseling because it provides information for both counselors and clients so they can understand and respond to client concerns as well as plan and evaluate programs. In addition, it can be therapeutic and can help clients understand both their past and present attitudes and actions as well as their plans for the future. Thus, assessments serve a diagnostic use, help to evaluate client prog- ress, and are useful to improve or promote client awareness, knowledge, and skills. Gregory (2011) further cited several test uses: classifi cation (i.e., program placement, screening, and certifi cation), diagnosis and treatment planning, client self-knowledge, program evaluation, and research to guide counseling theory and technique development. Whichever purpose(s) counselors cite as the reason for assessment, it is important to convey this purpose to the client throughout the assessment process. That is, assessment should be part of the learning process for a client rather than something that is tacked on to counseling sessions.

Because performing an assessment is similar to engaging in problem solving, the fi ve steps in a problem-solving model can be used to describe a psychological assessment model (Chang, D’Zurilla, & Sanna, 2004; D’Zurilla & Goldfried, 1971; D’Zurilla & Nezu, 1999). De- pending on a client’s problem-solving style, he or she will have varying levels of success in resolving a problem (Nezu, D’Zurilla, Zwick, & Nezu, 2004). Following is a brief description of the fi ve steps involved (see Table 1.1 for specifi c ways the model relates to the assessment process):

1. Problem Orientation. This fi rst step assesses how a problem is viewed (can be posi- tive or negative) and requires the client to recognize and accept the problem. With completion of this step, the client and counselor can begin to approach it in a system- atic fashion as indicated by the problem-solving model.

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7 Use of Assessment in Counseling •

Table 1.1 Assessment and Problem-Solving Steps

Problem-Solving Step Assessment Purpose Counseling Example

Problem Orientation: stimulate counselors and clients to consider various issues

Problem Identifi cation: clarify the nature of a problem or issue

Generation of Alternatives: suggest alternative solutions

Decision Making: determine appropriate treatment for the client

Verifi cation: evaluate the effectiveness of a particular solution

Almost any assessment procedure can be used to increase sensitivity to potential problems. Instruments that promote self- awareness and self-exploration can stimu- late clients to cope with developmental issues before they become actual problems. Surveys of groups or classes can help counselors identify common problems or concerns that can be taken into account in planning programs for clients.

Assessment procedures can help clarify the nature of the client’s problem and ultimately strengthen communication and the overall counseling relationship as well as clarify goals. For example, screening inventories or problem checklists can be used to assess the type and the extent of a client’s concerns. Personal diaries or logs can be used to iden- tify situations in which the problem occurs. Personality inventories can help counselors and clients understand personality dynamics underlying certain situations.

Assessment procedures enable counselors and clients to identify alternative solutions for client problems, view problems from dif- ferent angles, as well as stimulate new learn- ing. For example, an assessment interview can be used to determine what techniques have worked for the client in the past when faced with a similar problem. Checklists or inventories (such as a study skills inventory or work skills survey) yield data that can be used to generate alternatives.

Counselors use assessment materials to help clients weigh the attractiveness of each alternative and the likelihood of achieving each alternative. The likelihood of achiev- ing different alternatives can be evaluated by expectancy (or experience) tables that show the success rate for people with dif- ferent types of test scores or characteristics (Anastasi & Urbina, 1997). Balance sheets or decision-making grids enable clients to compare the desirability and feasibility of various alternatives (Howard, 2001).

Assessment procedures to verify success may include goal attainment scaling (Kiresuk, Smith, & Cardillo, 1994), self-monitoring techniques (Korotitsch & Nelson-Gray, 1999), the readministration of tests that the client completed earlier in counseling, client satisfaction surveys, and the use of outcome questionnaires (Wells, Burlingame, Lambert, & Hoag, 1996). In addition to serving as a guide for the counseling process, verifi ca- tion efforts also provide a means of account- ability for the counseling agency.

A counselor uses a needs assessment, such as an alcohol screening inventory, to identify areas of focus.

A counselor can pro- vide a diagnosis to classify a set of con- cerns or symptoms, such as the case of a relationship diffi culty or an anxiety disorder.

A counselor uses an interest inventory to suggest alternative career choices for a client.

A counselor helps a client identify positive self-statements to create alternatives.

A counselor uses a values clarifi cation exercise to assess the attractiveness of various alternatives.

A counselor uses a personality inventory to help select a client’s intervention.

Client feedback can be used to make changes to an intervention.

A counselor can request a client self- monitoring exercise to assess maintenance of change.

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8 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

2. Problem Identifi cation. This step involves the counselor and the client attempting to identify the problem in as much detail as possible. A client is more likely to continue in counseling and to achieve positive outcomes if the counselor and client agree on the nature of the problem (Busseri & Tyler, 2004). Identifi cation of the problem also aids in communication with others, such as referral sources, family, and friends.

3. Generation of Alternatives. In the third step, the counselor and client generate alter- natives to help resolve the problem. Counselors use assessment procedures to assist clients in discovering strengths on which they can build to overcome diffi culties or enhance development.

4. Decision Making. In this step clients anticipate the consequences of the various alter- natives. According to classical decision theory, choice is a function of the probability of success and the desirability of the outcome (Horan, 1979). This equation emphasizes the importance of assessing both the likelihood of success of various alternatives and the attractiveness of those alternatives for the client. Clients will usually want to con- sider those alternatives that maximize the likelihood of a favorable outcome.

5. Verifi cation. The counselor in this fi nal step should discuss with the client how the client will know when the problem has been solved. This step requires that goals be clearly specifi ed, that they be translated into specifi c behavioral objectives, and that the possibility for progress in accomplishing these goals be realistically viewed. Counselors are to verify the effectiveness of their interventions.

In understanding the purpose of assessments in counseling, it is also important to un- derstand what purposes do not characterize assessments—particularly tests. Tyler (1984) highlighted several things tests do not measure:

• Tests cannot measure unique characteristics, only attributes common to many people. • Individual assessment cannot be used to make group comparisons; counselors can

only estimate how well an individual will function in a culture for which the assess- ment is appropriate. Tests are not suitable for comparing groups that are not identical.

• Because test scores are plotted on a distribution of scores, we tend to infer scores on the distribution ends as “good versus poor” (p. 48). To this end counselors often evaluate scores without examining the appropriate norms and without considering that highness or lowness of scores do not measure a client’s worth.

• On a related note, a “good score” may measure some absence of pathology (such as in personality assessment) rather than universal attributes to which humans aspire.

• Tests cannot measure innate characteristics. Although there are biological compo- nents to some attributes (such as intelligence), beginning at birth these components interact with various environmental factors that further shape responses. Thus, even if counselors can assume that intelligence tests are free from cultural bias (which they are not), responses on intelligence tests are a combination of hereditary tenden- cies and individual responses to particular environments.

• Test scores are not fi nal measurements of anything but outlets—in conjunction with multiple assessment sources—for facilitating client growth. Clients’ high-stakes de- cisions should not be based solely on test scores.

To this list I add the following:

• Tests cannot measure all things equally. Some things, such as reaction time, may be easier to assess than others, such as intelligence or disability.

• Tests are not necessarily indicative of the totality of behaviors, attitudes, or skills. Tests are only one sampling of these areas and thus should be evaluated as such.

• Test results are not always useful. In fact, they are often misused in decision mak- ing and applied to individuals inappropriately. Concerns include the following:

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9 Use of Assessment in Counseling •

(a) misuse with minority groups, who may differ signifi cantly from the popula- tion for whom the test was developed; (b) use of tests to label or stereotype a person based on the test results; and (c) the disproportionate infl uence of tests in so-called high-stakes decisions, such as selection for college or employment. In some situations, too much emphasis may be placed on test results, often be- cause of their quantitative or scientifi c nature; in other situations, pertinent test information may be disregarded, especially if it confl icts with an individual’s personal beliefs or desires.

Please see the tip sheet at the end of the chapter for sound assessment procedures.

History of Assessment Let’s step back from how assessment is used (and should not be used) today and refl ect on how counselors began using assessment in the fi rst place. This section presents early key developments in intelligence, ability, interest, and personality assessment; most of these developments occurred from the late-19th to mid-20th century. After reviewing this brief history of assessment, perhaps you can understand why current assessment practices across various settings exist, how benefi cial assessment can be to counselors and clients, what mistakes those who have administered tests have made, and why certain practices should be continually challenged and scrutinized. Table 1.2 provides a time line of major assessment developments.

Table 1.2 Key Historical Events in Assessment

Year Event

2200 BC Chinese tested aspiring public offi cials for work evaluations and promotion decisions 1879 Wundt founded the fi rst psychological laboratory, conducting several experiments

with brass instruments 1880s Galton initiated the social science testing movement, measuring individual

differences in sensory processes 1890 James Cattell coined the term mental test 1900 Esquirol and Seguin performed formalized intelligence assessment in medical

communities College Entrance Examination Board (CEEB, now known as the College Board) created 1905 Binet–Simon scale developed; revised in 1908 and 1911 Goddard misused test at Vineland Training School and Ellis Island 1916 Stanford–Binet Scale created 1917 Army Alpha and Beta tests, Woodworth Personal Data Sheet developed 1921 Rorschach Inkblot Test published 1923 Terman and colleagues develop the Stanford Achievement Test 1926 Scholastic Aptitude Test published by CEEB Strong Vocational Interest Blank created 1938 Buros Center for Testing developed the Mental Measurements Yearbook Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) created 1939–1950s Wechsler Scales of Intelligence developed 1940s Myers–Briggs Type Indicator published 1942 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) created 1947 Educational Testing Service created 1964 Civil Rights Act 1974 Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act 1975 Education of All Handicapped Children Act (Pub. L. No. 94-142) 1990 American With Disabilities Act (Pub. L. No. 101-336) 1995 Individuals With Disabilities Education Act Amendments 1996 Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) 2001 No Child Left Behind Act (Pub. L. No. 107-110)a

aAdditional legislation concerning assessment is presented in Chapter 3.

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10 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

The discussion focuses primarily on historical events from the mid-1800s until present day. The earliest form of testing dates back to Ancient China, where in 2200 BC (over 4,400 years ago!) the Chinese used a civil service testing program to assess, evaluate, place, and promote its employees. Every three years offi cials tested employees on fi ve topics: civil law, military affairs, geography, agriculture, and revenue. The testing program was abol- ished in 1906 after several complaints and questions about its administration and utility, although the program infl uenced American and European civil service program place- ments in the 1800s. Let’s jump 4,000 years later, when individuals began recording formal assessment procedures in the social sciences.

Developments in Individual Intelligence Assessment

In the mid to late 1800s, there was an increasing interest in studying individual human differences, particularly concerning intelligence. Charles Darwin’s Origin of Species, with its focus on genetic variation and evolution and thus individual differences, was used as a case for testing human differences. The study of intelligence increased, given its links to discussions of evolution at the time. In the late 1800s, experimental psychologists—primar- ily Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920), Sir Francis Galton (1822–1911), and James Cattell (1860– 1944)—revolutionized the way intelligence and ability were measured. They focused on quantifi able measures of sensory processes (e.g., visual and auditory processes, reaction time) using brass instruments in human laboratories to indicate intelligence. Wundt, one of the founders of modern psychology, studied mental processes and was able to highlight that individual differences do exist (even though his interests were more in understand- ing general features of the psyche). Galton, Charles Darwin’s half-cousin, was considered a prolifi c scholar and creator of several signifi cant mathematical and scientifi c concepts, such as correlation, regression, and central tendency statistics; meteorology; fi ngerprint- ing; hearing loss; and heredity. He is considered the founder of eugenics, claiming genetics was the determinant of genius and mental competence differences. Galton is also referred to as the founder of mental tests; he demonstrated that individual cognitive differences do exist and can be measured. Although Galton’s tests are now considered simplistic, in the 1880s and 1890s he tested over 17,000 individuals on physical (e.g., height, weight, head size, length of middle fi nger) and behavioral (e.g., hand squeeze tests, lung capacity, visual acuity, reaction time) domains to indicate intelligence (Forrest, 1995). Cattell, who studied with both Wundt and Galton, coined the term mental test and articulated 10 mental tests (presence of each indicates intelligence) similar to Galton’s. Examples include strength of hand squeeze, rate of hand movement, degree of rubber tip on forehead pressure needed to cause pain, weight differentiation of identical-appearing boxes, reaction time for sound, and number of letters repeated upon hearing them.

Thus, in the early 20th century there was increased interest in what was called mental testing—now referred to as intelligence testing. Work in the medical community, where there was an increasing distinction between emotional problems and intellectual disabili- ties (i.e., mental retardation), set the stage for more formalized intelligence assessment. In Paris, France, two physicians—Jean Esquirol (1772–1840) and Edouard Sequin (1812– 1880)—studied language use, identifi ed various levels of verbal intelligence, and exam- ined motor function in patients to initially conceptualize performance intelligence. Sequin was particularly instrumental in performance tests, with the development of the Sequin form board. This board is still used today in neuropsychological tests and involves fi tting 10 blocks within designated slots on an upright board (DuBois, 1970).

The fi rst intelligence test was developed by Alfred Binet (1857–1911), who as minister of public instruction in Paris introduced the 1905 Binet–Simon scale in collaboration with his Sarbonne colleague Theodore Simon (1972–1961). They were commissioned by the French government to assess children with intellectual disabilities. They developed a scale that contained 30 tasks and was designed to assist in educational placement; the scale relied on

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11 Use of Assessment in Counseling •

a general factor of intelligence, versus lower level sensory processes, and it relied heavily on verbal ability (Goodenough, 1949). Sample tasks included following a movement with eyes, repeating three spoken digits, repeating a sentence of 15 words, putting three nouns (e.g., Paris, river, fortune) in a sentence, reversing the hands of a clock, and defi ning abstract words by distinguishing between them (e.g., boredom and weariness).

In 1908 Binet and Simon revised the scale and dropped many of the simpler tasks (used previously to classify those with severe intellectual disabilities) and added higher level tasks. The revised scale contained 58 tasks. The concept of mental level was developed for this scale, later referred to as mental age. Using a standardization sample of 300 children ages 3–13, Binet and Simon were able to calculate the number of items passed by a majority of children of a certain age. In the 1911 scale revision, mental level was further refi ned, whereas each age level had fi ve associated tasks. Ultimately, mental age was compared against chronological age, and others suggested that an intelligence quotient (IQ) be developed.

The 1908 Binet–Simon scale was signifi cantly misused, particularly in the United States at the Vineland Training School in New Jersey—a school for “feebleminded” children. Hen- ry Goddard, the fi rst American psychologist to translate the Binet–Simon scale, tested 378 school residents, classifying 73 as “idiots,” 205 as “imbeciles,” and 100 as “feebleminded.” He then tested 1,547 “normal” children and noted that 3% of the sample could be classifi ed as feebleminded. Goddard was invited in 1910 to Ellis Island to assess intelligence among immigrants. Through his assessments he increasingly emphasized that the rate of feeble- mindedness was much higher among immigrant populations (Gould, 1996). Specifi cally, he found feeblemindedness for his small immigrant samples at the following rates: 83% of Jews, 80% of Hungarians, 79% of Italians, and 87% of Russians (see Goddard, 1917). These fi ndings were used to make the case that feebleminded individuals were a threat to social order, and thus low IQ immigrants should be deported. Unfortunately, Goddard’s writ- ings heavily infl uenced immigration restrictions (Gould, 1996). Fortunately, Howard Knox developed several performance tests to be used with immigrants and was able to debunk some of Goddard’s conclusions (see Figure 1.1). Knox’s work highlighted the necessity of future intelligence tests containing performance or nonverbal parts (Richardson, 2003).

In 1916 Lewis Terman (1857–1956) and colleagues at Stanford University revised the scale (i.e., Stanford Binet Scale) and suggested that IQ be calculated by dividing an

Figure 1.1 Knox Administering Performance Tests to Ellis Island Immigrants, 1912–1916

Note. From “Howard Andrew Knox and the Origins of Performance Testing on Ellis Island, 1912– 1916,” by J. T. E. Richardson, 2003, History of Psychology, 6, p. 153. Copyright 2012 by the American Psychological Association (APA). Reprinted with permission. The use of APA information does not imply endorsement by APA.

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12 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

individual’s mental age by his or her chronological (actual) age and multiplying that frac- tion times 100. For example, if a 10-year-old child performs at the level of an 11-year-old (mental age), his IQ would equal 110. The Stanford Binet Scale was the gold standard in in- telligence testing for several decades and is now in its fi fth edition. In 1927 Charles Spear- man (1863–1945) conceptualized a general and specifi c factor theory of intelligence, and in 1941, Raymond Cattell (1905–1998) coined the terms fl uid and crystallized intelligence, in- fl uencing how future assessments were constructed and interpreted. Other developments, including the Wechsler scales (Wechsler, 1949, 1955), are discussed in Chapter 9.

Developments in Group Intelligence Assessment

Although individual intelligence tests had made signifi cant contributions in a short time— including a beginning understanding of the misuse of testing—test administrators learned quite quickly that group testing was more time-effi cient. The use of group tests became increasingly warranted when during World War I there was a need to screen new recruits. Robert Yerkes (1876–1956), while president of the American Psychological Association (APA), developed the fi rst two group tests: the Army Alpha and Army Beta intelligence tests. The Army Alpha measured verbal ability, numerical ability, ability to follow direc- tions, and knowledge of information. The Army Beta was a nonverbal counterpart to the Army Alpha and was used to evaluate illiterate or non-English-speaking recruits. During World War I over 1.5 million recruits were administered these tests for placement pur- poses. Figure 1.2 provides sample items from these tests.

Developments in Ability Assessment

Eventually group tests were used to assess more than just intelligence. Group aptitude tests were developed after World War II, as more specialized careers (e.g., fl ight engineers, pilots, navigators) required more stringent selection for fl ight schools, and previous intel- ligence tests (i.e., Army Alpha, Army Beta) were not suffi cient (Goslin, 1963). In essence, it was clear that previously developed intelligence tests were limited because not all impor- tant job functions were covered.

With greater attention paid to education after World War I, ability testing fl ourished in public schools and higher education. The Army Alpha and Beta tests were released for public use and became the model for future ability tests. Edward Thorndike (1874–1949) spearheaded the development of several standardized achievement tests in public schools, including rating scales, spelling tests, arithmetic reasoning, and handwriting assessments, to name a few. These tests were distinguished from earlier ones by a more reliable ad- ministration format. The College Entrance Examination Board (CEEB) was established in 1900 to regulate group test use in colleges and universities. In 1926 the CEEB developed the fi rst aptitude test for college admissions, the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT; Goslin, 1963). Functions of the CEEB were subsumed under the Educational Testing Service (ETS) in 1948, creator of modern-day assessments such as the Graduate Record Examination (GRE), Law School Admissions Test (LSAT), Praxis, and Test of English as a Foreign Lan- guage (ToEFL). In addition, Terman and his colleagues in 1923 developed a standardized achievement test, the Stanford Achievement Test (SAchT). So, as a student in the 1930s and 1940s, you certainly would have had signifi cant exposure to testing!

Developments in Career Assessment

Upon reading about major developments in intelligence and ability testing, it may be evi- dent to you that there was some focus on vocational assessment at the same time. Similar to how intelligence and ability assessments developed from societal needs (e.g., educa- tional reform and placement, military screening), career assessment developed in response

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13 Use of Assessment in Counseling •

Figure 1.2 Sample Army Alpha and Army Beta Items

Note. Retrieved from http://offi cial-asvab.com/armysamples_coun.htm. Available in the public domain.

Army Alpha

1. A company advanced 6 miles and retreated 2 miles. How far was it then from its fi rst position?

2. A dealer bought some mules for $1,200. He sold them for $1,500, making $50 on each mule. How many mules were there?

3. Thermometers are useful because a. They regulate temperature b. They tell us how warm it is c. They contain mercury 4. A machine gun is more deadly than a rifl e

because it a. Was invented more recently b. Fires more rapidly c. Can be used with less training

For these next two items, examinees fi rst had to unscramble the words to form a sentence, and then indicate if the sentence was true or false.

5. happy is man sick always a 6. day it snow does every not

The next two items required examinees to determine the next two numbers in each sequence.

7. 3 4 5 6 7 8 ___ ___ 8. 18 14 17 13 16 12 ___ ___

A portion of the Army Alpha required examinees to solve analogies.

9. shoe—foot. hat—kitten, head, knife, penny

10. eye—head. window—key, fl oor, room, door

In these next two examples, examinees were required to complete the sentence by selecting one of the four possible answers.

11. The apple grows on a shrub, vine, bush, tree

12. Denim is a dance, food, fabric, drink

Other portions of the test required examinees to follow instructions in performing paper-and-pencil tasks.

Answers: 1. 4 miles; 2. 6 mules; 3. B; 4. B; 5. False (A sick man is always happy); 6. True (It does not snow every day); 7. 9, 10; 8. 15, 11; 9. Head; 10. Room; 11. Tree; 12. Fabric

Army Beta

In the items below, examinees were asked to identify what was missing from each picture.

Answers: 1. Mouth; 2. Eye; 3. Nose; 4. Hand; 5. Chimney; 6. Ear; 7. Filament; 8. Return address; 9. Strings; 10. Corkscrew; 11. Trigger; 12. Tail; 13. Claw; 14. Shadow; 15. Ball; 16. Net; 17. Arm; 18. Speaker; 19. Arm in mirror; 20. Diamond

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14 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

to societal changes of the Industrial Revolution, beginning in the late 1800s. With econom- ic development came both positive and negative social conditions with major vocational implications. Frank Parsons developed in 1908 the Boston Vocational Bureau to address social conditions through vocational guidance. Specifi cally, the bureau assisted schoolchil- dren with career selection, a process involving career assessment. Parsons’s work evolved to create over 900 programs in high schools across the United States by 1918.

In addition to Parsons’s trait and factor assessments, some of the earlier vocational as- sessments were interest inventories. Miner (1922) is credited with the fi rst formal interest inventory to assist high school students with career selection. E. L. Thorndike (1912/1923) studied the interests of 100 college students, leading to the development of several interest inventories, such as the Carnegie Interest Inventory, the Strong Vocational Interest Blank (Strong, 1927), and the Kuder Preference Record and its revisions (see G. F. Kuder, 1934, 1966; G. F. Kuder & Diamond, 1979; Zytowski, 1985), to name a few. Special aptitude tests were developed for use in vocational counseling to test things such as mechanical, cleri- cal, and artistic aptitudes. As aptitude tests evolved in vocational counseling, the need for multiple aptitude tests became more evident. For example, the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) is the most widely used multiple aptitude assessment in the world; it is used for military service qualifi cation (discussed further in Chapter 11).

Developments in career assessment highlight the specifi c role counselors have played in the assessment world. That is, during the early days of the profession, counseling and test- ing were virtually synonymous. In fact, many of the counseling centers established during the 1930s and 1940s were called counseling and testing centers.

Developments in Personality Assessment

After World War I, society saw an increased interest in personality assessment as well. Personality assessment has its roots with Galton (1883), Kraepelin (1892), and Jung’s (1910) use of free association tasks for psychiatric patients and normal populations to assess per- sonality. Essentially, individuals would respond with the fi rst word (or several words, de- pending on the assessment) that came to mind for a stimulus word. Personality assessment began to fl ourish in the early 1900s.

World War I saw the development of the fi rst personality questionnaire to screen re- cruits, the Woodworth Personal Data Sheet (DuBois, 1970). The Personal Data Sheet con- tained 116 yes–no items to detect mental health problems. Sample items include “Do you have a strong desire to commit suicide?” “Do ideas run through your head so that you can- not sleep?” and “Are you bothered by a feeling that things are not real?” (Gregory, 2011). Building from the Personal Data Sheet, other psychometricians (e.g., Allport & Vernon, 1931; Thurstone & Thurstone, 1930) developed personality assessments with multiple di- mensions or scales to understand personality. One of the most famous personality assess- ments—the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), which is now in its second edition—includes methodology similar to its predecessors, comparing responses from normal and mentally disturbed individuals across various scales. In addition, it in- cludes several validity scales to assess for “faking good” and “faking bad.” The MMPI-2 is discussed further in Chapter 13.

With the increased attention on objective personality assessment, several test develop- ers were interested in different methods for assessing personality. Projective techniques of assessment were developed as a means for understanding associations and responses to stimuli; for example, Hermann Roschach (1884–1922) developed a tool using 10 inkblots (Rorschach Inkblot Test). Infl uenced by the works of Jung and other psychoanalytics, Ror- schach believed these stimuli could reveal something about an individual’s unconscious. Other projective techniques were developed during the early 1900s, including the The- matic Apperception Test (TAT) and the House–Tree–Person (Buck, 1948). Projective tests

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15 Use of Assessment in Counseling •

are discussed in more detail in Chapter 13. Informal assessment methods, including the clinical interview, became more evident with the advent of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) in 1952. The DSM is discussed in more detail in Chapter 7.

Assessment Today

Today, there are tests or other assessment tools for everything. Counselors’ roots in voca- tional guidance certainly highlight their infl uence on career assessment. Today, counselors interact with intelligence and ability test results as they work with clients and also admin- ister, interpret, and apply data from vocational and personality assessments to help clients make important decisions and gain self-awareness. Such test results also help counselors screen and classify clients as well as identify or refi ne programs and interventions. Increas- ingly, counselors are engaged in all categories of assessment.

Assessment Usage in Counseling Settings

With counselors interacting with assessment data from a variety of assessment tools, there are varying types of and ways assessments are used. Researchers have examined testing practices over the past several decades for helping professionals in counseling (Bubenzer, Zimpfer, & Mahrle, 1990; Frauenhoffer, Ross, Gfeller, Searight, & Pitrowski, 1998), psychol- ogy in general (Hogan, 2005; Lubin, Larsen, & Matarazzo, 1984), vocational rehabilita- tion (Donoso, Hernandez, & Horin, 2010), clinical psychology (Camara, Nathan, & Puente, 2000; Watkins, Campbell, Nieberding, & Hallmark, 1995), neuropsychology (Camara et al., 2000), and school psychology (Hutton, Dubes, & Muir, 1992; Kennedy, Faust, Willis, & Piotrowski, 1994; Wilson & Reschly, 1996). Some tests have remained popular across disci- plines and decades, with the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Test (WAIS) and MMPI-2 remain- ing the top choices. Since 1969, the top fi ve projective tests have been stable and include the following: Rorschach Inkblot Test, TAT, Sentence Completion Test, House–Tree–Person, and Draw-a-Person Test (Donoso et al., 2010).

However, there are several variations in assessment usage. There are many reasons why helping professionals select the instruments they do: professional discipline, type of cli- ent issue (Piotrowski, 2007), referral question, previous testing experiences, a test’s psy- chometric properties, test administrators’ graduate training experiences, agency or setting requirements, test availability, and therapists’ theoretical orientation (Watkins et al., 1995). Although preferences for particular assessments have changed somewhat over the years, counselors continue to make extensive use of them for a variety of purposes. Counselors identify benefi ts of assessment for personal and career counseling. In regard to personal counseling, they emphasize the importance of assessing the client’s potential for harm to self and others, the client’s movement toward counseling goals, and the extent of a client’s psychological dysfunction. In regard to career counseling, counselors stress the impor- tance of test results for client decision making (Loesch & Vacc, 1993). In Assessment in Ac- tion 1.1 (see pp. 17–18), counselors across settings discuss their use of assessment.

Mental Health Counseling

Counselors often work in mental health agencies with other professionals to assess and treat clients encountering a variety of personal problems. In addition to an assessment interview, Frauenhoffer et al. (1998) found that mental health counselors were most likely to use the MMPI-2, Beck Depression Inventory, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), WAIS, projective tests, and the Wide Range Achievement Test as assessment pro- cedures. Many of the instruments mental health counselors administer, score, and/or interpret require additional training.

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16 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

Career Counseling

Career assessment and counseling are pursued by counselors in a broad range of settings, including employment services, Veterans Affairs hospitals and mental health agencies, re- habilitation centers, and school and college counseling offi ces. Counselors in these settings benefi t from a wide variety of career assessment instruments from which to choose for career counseling purposes. Whitfi eld, Feller, and Wood (2009) described more than 300 instruments used to measure different factors important in career assessment.

Popular instruments designed specifi cally for career assessment include interest mea- sures such as the Strong Interest Inventory or one of the Kuder interest inventories, apti- tude tests such as the Differential Aptitude Tests or the ASVAB, and values measures such as the Work Values Inventory (Watkins, Campbell, & Nieberding, 1994). Because of their widespread use in career counseling over a number of years, these three types of measures (interest, aptitude, and values—sometimes called “the Big Three”) have been looked on as the most crucial ones to take into account in career assessment (Swanson & D’Achiardi, 2005). Other measures pertinent to career counseling include measures of career choice and development, such as the Career Maturity Inventory and Career Decision Scale. The different career assessment measures have been used to (a) increase client self-knowledge, (b) help clients make career choices, and (c) encourage client participation in career coun- seling (Watkins et al., 1994).

School Counseling

Counselors in elementary, middle, and high school settings frequently are involved with assessment activities in their work with students, parents, and teachers. A survey of mem- bers of the American School Counselor Association found that school counselors fre- quently performed the assessment activities shown in Table 1.3 (Ekstrom, Elmore, Schafer, Trotter, & Webster, 2004). At least 75% of the counselors in the survey indicated that they performed these 12 activities often or occasionally. School administrators and teachers typically consider school counselors to be “test experts,” whom they will consult in test matters such as those listed in Table 1.3 (Impara & Plake, 1995).

Surveys have indicated that school counselors are most likely to use tests that measure cognitive abilities, such as the WISC or the SAT (Elmore, Ekstrom, Diamond, & Whittaker, 1993; Giordano, Schwiebert, & Brotherton, 1997). In addition to these tests, the surveys indicated that the counselors use a variety of other instruments, including achievement, aptitude, interest, personality, and substance abuse measures. Approximately two thirds of the school counselors in one survey indicated that testing was an “important” or “very important” part of their work (Elmore et al., 1993). Nearly all of the respondents in this survey said that they were responsible for interpreting test results to students. In many cases, school counselors do not administer standardized tests, but they are expected to be able to interpret the results from such tests to students, parents, and teachers (Blacher, Murray-Ward, & Uellendahl, 2005; Giordano et al., 1997).

School counselors are also likely to be exposed to behavioral assessment procedures, which are often used by school psychologists to evaluate students for developmental dis- orders. School psychologists frequently use instruments such as the Behavior Assessment System for Children, Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist, or Conners’ Behavior Rating Scale for this purpose (Zaske, Hegstrom, & Smith, 1999). Although school counselors may not administer these instruments themselves, they can work more effectively with stu- dents if they are familiar with the instruments, both for referral purposes and for under- standing and implementing recommendations based on their use.

Most of the specifi c tests mentioned above that are used in the different types of coun- seling settings are discussed in this book. It is important for counselors to learn about these tests so that they can use them successfully in their own practices and so that they

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17 Use of Assessment in Counseling •

can interpret scores from tests for clients referred to them by other professionals. Some of these instruments require advanced training beyond that obtained in most master’s degree counseling programs.

Assessment in Action 1.1

Assessment Across Counseling Settings

For the last ten years in the career-service fi eld, I have strongly advocated for the descriptive versus the prescriptive interpretation of psychometric-measurement in- struments. Given the controversy about the validity and reliability of self-reported psychometric data, I believe that the power of these instruments lies in the theories behind them and the opportunity we have to help our students and alumni to esti- mate and test their results based on engaging or experiential applications of the op- erational defi nitions of the constructs. I thus focus on their recall of most meaningful experiences, regardless of their type or proximity, and briefl y review with them the theory until they can grasp it refl ectively and experientially, generate their preferred result, and apply it to their experiences. The outcome of this exercise is our collabora- tive ideation of the career or relational-dynamic applications of their estimate and its eventual comparison to their reported result.

—Daniel Pascoe Aguilar, PhD, MDiv Co-Director of the University of Oregon Career Center

Table 1.3 Frequent Assessment Activities of School Counselors

Assessment Activity Frequencya(%)

Referring students to other professionals, when appropriate, for additional assessment/appraisal 98

Interpreting scores from tests/assessments and using the information in counseling 91 Reading about and being aware of ethical issues in assessment 86 Reading about and being aware of current issues involving multicultural assessment,

the assessment of students with disabilities and other special needs, and the assessment of language minorities 84

Synthesizing and integrating test and nontest data to make decisions about individuals 84

Reading a variety of professional literature on topics such as use of testing and assessment in school counseling, school counseling research, and career counseling research 84

Communicating and interpreting test/assessment information to parents 81 Communicating and interpreting test/assessment information to teachers,

school administrators, and other professionals 80 Helping teachers use assessments and assessment information 80 Making decisions about the types of assessments to use in counseling groups

or for individual students 78 Using assessment information to evaluate student performance 78 Using assessment information to monitor student performance 78

Note. From “A Survey of Assessment and Evaluation Activities of School Counselors,” by R. B. Ekstrom, P. B. Elmore, W. D. Schafer, T. V. Trotter, & B. Webster, 2004, Professional School Counselor, 8, p. 27. Copyright 2004 by the American School Counselor Association. Reprinted with permission. No further reproduction authorized without written permission of the American School Counselor Association. aAssessment activities that at least 75% of responding school counselors reported as performing “often” or “occasionally.”

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18 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

Counseling assessments at the K-12 setting sometimes look different from assess- ments in other areas of counseling. Informal assessments (particularly at the elemen- tary level) may include procedures as simple as thumbs up, thumbs down, hands up, hands down, interviews, and/or questionnaires to show student understanding of subject matter. While doing classroom guidance lessons, I often ask students to raise their hands to show that they understand certain behaviors. For example, while doing a second-grade classroom guidance lesson on respect, I have had the students raise their hands to show which of the listed behaviors demonstrated respect. While it is very informal, it allows me to do a quick check to gain an understanding of which students actually grasped the concept of the lesson and have learned examples of what respectful behavior looks like. Oftentimes, informal and formal assessments are used to evaluate school needs, classroom needs, and individual needs.

Formal assessments in the K–12 setting are used for various reasons. When work- ing with students to create groups, to determine grade-level placement, and to assist with college preparation, school counselors in Virginia are able to utilize formal as- sessments such as the Phonological Awareness Literacy Screening (PALS), Standards of Learning (SOL), and Scholastic Aptitude Tests (SAT). Other formal assessments used to assist career education programs are the Virginia Education Wizard’s Career Assessment and the Naglieri Assessment Tests, which are used to assess students for Talented and Gifted (TAG) programs.

Because effectiveness in assessment and evaluation is critical to comprehensive school counseling programs, the American School Counselor Association’s (2004) National Standards state that assessment results be utilized in educational planning. Whether the assessment is informal or formal, it is important that school counselors have an understanding of their school’s needs and that the data are appropriately used to assist students.

—Brandy K. Richeson, PhD Professional School Counselor Newport News Public Schools

The University of Central Florida (UCF) Marriage & Family Research Institute (MFRI) utilizes both formal and informal assessments on a daily basis. Both in research and clinical practice, couples receiving services are assessed for relationship satisfac- tion, individual distress, relationship expectations, and intimate partner violence. We assess couples on the above-mentioned constructs because research indicates links between them and healthy relationships. Assessment results also help us determine how much improvement couples experience in counseling or relationship education workshops. The following formal assessments are utilized: (a) Dyadic Adjustment Scale—examines relationship adjustment, including satisfaction; (b) Outcomes Ques- tionnaire 45.2—examines individual distress; and (c) Marital and Relationship Ex- pectations Questionnaire—examines expectations couples hold of relationships. We utilize both informal and formal strategies to screen for intimate partner violence. Couples complete the Domestic Violence Screen (DVS), followed by informal ques- tions to assess for immediate danger as well as power and control issues. Couples are separated prior to completion of our formal assessments and then brought together to review total scores (with the exception of the DVS). We formally assess couples at repeated time intervals, while informal assessment is ongoing throughout services.

—Ryan G. Carlson, LMHC, NCC Director, Project TOGETHER

UCF Marriage & Family Research Institute

• • •

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19 Use of Assessment in Counseling •

Counseling Research

As counselors practice and use assessments in their work with clients, it is important they understand and contribute to current research for a particular assessment tool. Hogan and Rengert (2008) noted 410 assessments used in research, as cited in four journals published in the counseling fi eld for 2002–2005 (Journal of Counseling & Development, Journal of Coun- seling Psychology, Journal of Mental Health Counseling, and Professional School Counseling). Table 1.4 provides a list of the top 30 instruments used in research studies for these jour- nals; each of these instruments was used at least four times during the review period.

Although Table 1.4 may not be comprehensive, given that several counseling journals were omitted from the analysis, the fi ndings do highlight some differences between what tools practitioners say they use with clients versus those with which they conduct and publish research. Hogan and Rengert (2008) noted the following: The Strong Interest In- ventory (Harmon, Hansen, Borgen, & Hammer, 1994) was the only instrument to make both the self-report and published research lists; there were no projective techniques in- cluded in the research studies; the 16PF (Conn & Rieke, 1994) and the Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test (Brannigan & Decker, 2003) did not appear in research studies; and there was only one use each of the WAIS (Wechsler, 1997), WISC (Wechsler, 2003), and Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT; Wilkinson, 1993), with no other use of intelligence or ability

Table 1.4 Top Tests Used in Research Studies in Four Counseling Journals for 2002–2005

Test Times Used

Beck Depression Inventory Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale Experiences in Close Relationships Hopkins Symptom Checklist Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure Brief Symptom Inventory Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale Outcome Questionnaire–45 Perceived Stress Scale Asian Values Scale Career Decisions Scale Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale Session Evaluation Questionnaire Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding Differentiation of Self Inventory Eating Disorder Inventory Strong Interest Inventory Adult Attachment Scale–Revised Child Behavior Checklist Clinical Vignettes Dynamic Adjustment Scale Global Assessment of Functioning Multidimensional Perfection Scale National Education Longitudinal Scale of 1998 Positive and Negative Affect Schedule Satisfaction With Life Scale Self-Construal Scale Self-Effi cacy Scale Social Connectedness Scale Symptom Checklist–90–Revised

18 12 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

Note. The four journals were Journal of Counseling & Development, Journal of Counseling Psychology, Journal of Mental Health Counseling, and Professional School Counseling. From “Test Usage in Published Research and the Practice of Counseling: A Comparative Review” by T. P. Hogan & C. Rengert, 2008, Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 41, 51–56.

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20 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

tests in the research studies. In sum, counselors need to be aware of the discrepancies in test use across disciplines and settings and among what is used in research.

Key Questions for Selecting Assessments Psychological assessment procedures differ from each other in a variety of ways. As indi- cated in the following paragraphs, these differences can be categorized by six basic ques- tions regarding the nature of the assessment method itself.

Who Is Making the Assessment?

Is the person making a self-assessment, or is another person making the assessment? Mea- surement specialists have differentiated between “S-data” based on self-reports and “O- data” based on the reports of others, such as teachers, supervisors, family members, and friends. Both types of data are needed to obtain a full appraisal of the individual. For exam- ple, a process known as 360° (full circle) feedback is sometimes used in business settings to evaluate employee performance from multiple points of view, including those of managers, peers, subordinates, customers, and self. Although not readily available, reports from others are particularly helpful in assessing conditions when self-reports may be distorted or lim- ited, such as substance abuse, personality disorders, and childhood disorders (Klein, 2003).

In general, self-reports and other-reports offer different perspectives regarding an individual. Research indicates that the two types of data can complement each other. For example, Oltmanns, Friedman, Fiedler, and Turkheimer (2004) found that the performance of recruits in the military was more effectively predicted by a combination of S-data (information from a self-report ques- tionnaire) and O-data (ratings made by fellow recruits) than by either type of data by itself.

What Is Being Assessed?

“What” here refers to the subject of the assessment procedure. Is the individual or the envi- ronment the subject of the assessment? Counselors have usually been interested in individ- ual assessment; however, instruments that evaluate the environment (e.g., classroom atmo- sphere or residence hall settings) can also provide important information for understanding or treating a problem (Chartrand, 1991; Friedman & Wachs, 1999). The client’s behavior de- pends on both individual and situational characteristics, so counseling can be most effective when psychological assessment includes both the individual and the environment.

If the individual is being appraised, does the content of the assessment deal primarily with affective (feeling), cognitive (thinking), or behavioral (doing) aspects of the individu- al? Affective characteristics may be subdivided into temperamental and motivational fac- tors (Guilford, 1959). Temperamental factors include the characteristics assessed by most personality inventories, for example, self-suffi ciency, stability, and impulsiveness. Motiva- tional factors refer to interests or values. According to Guilford (1959), temperament gov- erns the manner in which an individual performs, whereas motivation determines what activities or goals the individual will choose to pursue.

Cognitive variables may be based on learning that takes place in a specifi c course or learning that is relatively independent of specifi c coursework. This distinction describes a basic difference between achievement and aptitude tests. Achievement tests evaluate past or present performance; aptitude tests predict future performance. Behavioral mea- sures include responses that are voluntary or involuntary in nature. Voluntary responses may be assessed either by self-monitoring or by other-monitoring techniques. A sys- tematic record is kept of measurable items, such as calories consumed or hours spent watching television. In the case of involuntary responses (e.g., blood pressure or heart rate), various types of physiological measures are used to assess individual reactivity. Biofeedback devices, often used to teach relaxation methods, are a good example of the latter type of assessment measure.

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21 Use of Assessment in Counseling •

The question of what is being assessed also pertains to the variables chosen for the assessment process. Individuals can be assessed by common variables that apply to all people or by unique variables that apply only to the individual. In the fi rst case, sometimes referred to as nomothetic assessment, emphasis is placed on variables that show lawful or meaningful distinctions among people. The group provides a frame of reference for de- termining which variables to assess and how to interpret the results. In the second case, sometimes referred to as idiographic assessment, emphasis is placed on those variables that can be most helpful in describing the individual. The individual serves as the reference point both to identify relevant variables and to interpret data.

Most psychological tests, such as interest and personality inventories, use the nomothet- ic approach. These tests use the same scales to describe all clients. Scores are interpreted in regard to a set of norms. In contrast, many of the informal assessment procedures, such as the interview, case study, or card sorts, use an idiographic approach. A different set of variables is used to describe each client. Nomothetic techniques can be more readily inter- preted, but they may not be as relevant or as penetrating as idiographic methods, which have been designed to measure variations in individuality (Grice, 2004; Neimeyer, 1989).

Where Is the Assessment Taking Place?

The location where the assessment takes place is important in the sense that it helps to dif- ferentiate between test results obtained in laboratory settings and those obtained in natural settings. Many psychological tests must be administered under standardized conditions so that the test results can be interpreted properly. For these tests, a testing room or laboratory is usually used. If the circumstances of test administration differ from person to person, differ- ences in the testing conditions can infl uence test results. Some measures, such as employee ratings, are obtained in natural settings under conditions that may vary considerably for dif- ferent individuals. Variations in job circumstances can greatly affect the ratings. Interpreta- tions of the results must take into account the setting in which they were obtained.

When Is the Assessment Occurring?

The question of when an assessment takes place is of value in distinguishing between assessments planned in advance (prospective) and those based on recall (retrospective). Self-monitoring techniques are usually planned in advance. For example, students may be asked to keep track of the number of hours that they studied or the number of pages that they read during a study period. In contrast, biographical measures such as life history forms are recorded to the best of the individual’s recollection after the event has occurred.

Why Is the Assessment Being Undertaken?

The question of “why” pertains to the reason for administering the test rather than to the nature of the test itself. The same test can be used for a variety of purposes, such as counsel- ing, selection, placement, description, and evaluation. When tests are used in counseling, all data obtained must be regarded as confi dential. Such private data may be contrasted with public data—data originally obtained for another purpose, such as selection or place- ment. Examples of public data include academic grades, educational level, or occupational status. Counselors use public as well as private data in helping clients to address certain issues, because the public data can provide a great deal of information about the client’s past performance under various circumstances.

How Is the Assessment Conducted?

“How” here refers to the manner in which the test material is presented, how the data are analyzed, and how the score for the assessment procedure is obtained. First, is the type of

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22 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

behavior that is being assessed disguised or undisguised? Projective techniques (described in Chapter 13) are designed so that the respondent is typically unaware of the true nature of the test or of any “preferred” answer. Because the intent of the test is disguised, it is more diffi cult for respondents to fake their answers to produce a particular impression.

Second, is the information obtained in the assessment analyzed in a quantitative or qualitative fashion? Quantitative procedures, which include most psychological tests, yield a specifi c score on a continuous scale. Qualitative procedures, such as card sorts, work samples, or structured exercises, produce a verbal description of a person’s behav- ior or of a situation that can be placed into one of several categories (e.g., outgoing vs. reserved personality type). By their very nature, quantitative procedures have been more thoroughly studied in terms of reliability and validity. Qualitative procedures, however, are more open-ended and adaptable for use in counseling, especially with a diverse clien- tele (L. Goldman, 1992; Okocha, 1998).

Finally, are scores arrived at objectively, free of individual judgment, or subjectively, based on the scorer’s best judgment? Tests that can be scored by means of a scoring stencil are objective. That is, different individuals using the same scoring stencil with an answer sheet should obtain the same score if they are careful in counting the number of correct answers. In contrast, rating scales are subjective—the score assigned will often vary de- pending on the individual rater.

Chapter Summary

Assessment has a long history in counseling and serves several functions that ultimately assist to transform lives and improve interventions. The chapter reviewed foundational in- formation about assessments, including key terminology, assessment use and purpose, and developments in intelligence, ability, vocational, and personality assessments throughout history. The next chapter discusses the assessment process and types of methods used with clients to measure individual and counseling outcomes.

Assessment refers to the process of integrating and interpreting client information from a broad range of evaluation methods. This process can be improved by adhering to the basic principles of psychological assessment outlined in this chapter. Tests have been criticized for both their limitations and their misuse. Counselors need to be aware of test limitations and must obtain appropriate training and supervision in regard to the tests that they plan to use. The process of assessment can be described as both a science and an art. Many of the instruments used in assessment have been developed by means of empirical research and improved over time; however, the process of interpreting the assessment data often depends on the counselor’s best judgment. In addition to learning about different evalu- ation procedures, counselors need to consider how they can improve the judgments they make in the assessment process. Please review the Tip Sheet below to understand guiding principles of assessment in counseling.

Tip Sheet

Principles of Assessment in Counseling

✓ Know the purpose of the assessment to assist you both in selecting and in interpreting assessments.

✓ Include the client as a collaborator in selecting topics for assessment and in interpret- ing the results.

✓ Be aware of the strengths and limitations of the assessment procedures used in coun- seling, including information about the psychometric properties of tests and the psy- chological fi ndings regarding the behavior being assessed.

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23 Use of Assessment in Counseling •

✓ Understand the theoretical construct or condition being measured by a test, such as attention-defi cit/hyperactivity disorder, and recognize whether or not the test adequately measures this construct.

✓ Be well versed in all aspects of test use, including selection, administration and scor- ing, interpretation, and the communication of results.

✓ Use several methods of assessment for an overall assessment in order to provide a broader view of an issue and corroborate the results of any one assessment method. Be sure to use both quantitative and qualitative tools.

✓ Assess more than a single variable at a time. A multidimensional approach enriches the assessment process by providing additional information that can be helpful in forming assessments. It presents a “big picture” of the client’s situation that can be important in viewing a client’s concerns from different angles.

✓ If possible, use instruments that include validity checks, such as “fake good,” “fake bad,” and “random responding” scales. Make sure that a client’s test responses are valid before attempting to interpret the test results.

✓ Consider the possibility of multiple problems, such as depression coupled with substance abuse, anxiety, or physical problems. Clients with mental disorders often meet the criteria for more than one disorder at the same time (Kessler, Chiu, Demler, & Walters, 2005).

✓ Assess the situation as well as the client. Avoid attribution bias, which indicates a predisposition to attribute the cause of problems to the individual rather than to the situation. Environmental factors interact with individual characteristics in affecting a person’s behavior in a particular situation (Galassi & Perot, 1992).

✓ Consider alternative hypotheses. Counselors need to be watchful for confi rmatory bias, that is, a tendency to look only for evidence that will support a favorite hypoth- esis. Seek data that may support an alternative hypothesis as well as data that may prove a preestablished hypothesis. For example, a counselor who believes that a stu- dent is failing in school because of lack of ability should also consider other factors, such as health, personal or family problems, and study skills, that may be affecting academic performance.

✓ Treat all assessments as tentative. As additional data become available, the counselor should be ready to revise the assessment.

✓ Keep in mind the regression effect when interpreting very high or very low scores, all of which are infl uenced to some extent by chance factors. On retesting, a client’s scores tend to regress toward the mean of the population that the client represents. That is, clients who obtain unusually high or low scores on a test the fi rst time usu- ally will not score as high or low on an equivalent form of that test the next time they take it. For this reason, it is often helpful to test a client more than once.

✓ Become familiar with the condition or issue being assessed. Make use of base rates (frequency of occurrence of a particular behavior or diagnosis within a given popu- lation) in undertaking and forming an assessment. For example, because of the fre- quency of problem drinking among college students, counselors should routinely assess college clients for alcohol abuse (Knight et al., 2002).

✓ Consider the infl uence of individual factors, such as age, gender, educational level, and ethnicity, on test results. Use separate norms that take such factors into account when they are available.

✓ Be aware of common cultural or personal biases that may infl uence assessment deci- sions. Studies show that race bias, social class bias, and gender bias may affect clini- cal judgment.

✓ Identify, interpret, and incorporate cultural data as part of the assessment process. Use measures of acculturation, such as number of generations in new culture and language preference, to help determine whether a client fi ts the population on which a test was developed and normed.

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24 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

✓ Consult with other professionals regarding assessment procedures and outcomes. Continue learning about assessments and the underlying constructs they measure.

✓ Use the assessment results to provide feedback to clients as part of the therapy process. Assessments should include an evaluation of a client’s strengths as well as limitations.

Review Questions

1. What are the fi ve functions of assessment, as identifi ed in the problem-solving model? 2. What are some of the ways assessments should not be used? 3. Who are the key players in the development of intelligence, ability, vocational, and

personality assessment? 4. How have historical events infl uenced how tests were developed and used over the

past 100 years? 5. What are the primary assessments used in the counseling setting?

Hays, D. G. (2013). Assessment in counseling : A guide to the use of psychological assessment procedures. American Counseling Association. Created from waldenu on 2023-09-16 12:12:07.

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