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Coverage: Chapters 8,9,10,11,12,13,14 ONLY
Answer the questions ( you can answer the question over the course of few days! Just make sure to save your answers every time).
Finalize your answers (again, make sure that everything is saved).
Upload the word document with YOUR ANSWERS in it, under this assignment.
Highly recommended deadline: Dec 3rd @ 11:59 PM
You can submit this assignment until Dec10th at 11:59 PM with no penalty.
Coverage: Chapters 8,9,10,11,12,13,14 ONLY
This test has 100 points.
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The Importance of Intercultural Communication
8.1 Explain why it is important to learn about intercultural communication.
How many reasons for studying intercultural communication can you think of?If you are like many students, entering college has given you more opportunities than ever before for intercultural contact, both domestically and internationally. You will communicate better in these situations if you have a good understanding of intercultural communication. In addition, increased knowledge and skill in intercultural communication can improve your career effectiveness, intergroup relations, and self-awareness. Let's look at each of these reasons more closely.
Intercultural Communication and the Individual: Cultural Values
8.3 Describe how cultural values influence communication.
In Chapters 5 and 6, we described how culture Culture influences verbal and nonverbal communication. You might think that these differences would be important to understanding intercultural communication; however, just as important is understanding cultural values, which are the beliefs that are so central to a cultural group that they are never questioned.
The Individual, Intercultural Communication, and Society: Politics, History, and Power
8.4 Explain the roles that politics, history, and power play in communication between people from different cultural backgrounds.
As you have probably gathered by now, intercultural communication never occurs in a vacuum, but must be understood in the context of larger societal forces. In this section, we first focus on social, political, and historical forces; second, we turn our attention to the role of power in intercultural communication.
Ethics and Intercultural Communication
8.5 Give three guidelines for communicating more ethically with people whose cultural backgrounds differ from your own.
How can you communicate more ethically across cultures? Unfortunately, no easy answers exist, but a few guidelines may be helpful.
First, remember that everyone, including you, is enmeshed in a culture and, thus, communicating through a cultural lens. Recognizing your own cultural attitudes, values, and beliefs will make you more sensitive to others' cultures and less likely to impose your own cultural attitudes on their communication patterns. Although you may feel most comfortable living in your own culture and following its communication patterns, you should not conclude that your culture and communication style are best or should be the standard for all other cultures. Such a position is called ethnocentrism, which you learned about in Chapter 3. Of course, appreciating and respecting other cultures does not mean you don't still appreciate and respect your own.
Second, as you learn about other cultural groups, be aware of their humanity and avoid the temptation to view them as an exotic "other." Communication scholar Bradford Hall (1997) has cautioned about this tendency, which is called the "zoo approach."
When using such an approach, we view the study of culture as if we were walking through a zoo admiring, gasping, and chuckling at the various exotic animals we observe. One may discover amazing, interesting, and valuable information by using such a perspective and even develop a real fondness of these exotic people, but miss the point that we are as culturally "caged" as others and that they are culturally as "free" as we are (Hall, 1997, p. 14). From an ethical perspective, the zoo approach denies the humanity of other cultural groups. For example, the view of African cultures as primitive and incapable led Whites to justify colonizing Africa and exploiting its rich resources in the nineteenth century.
Third, you will be more ethical in your intercultural interactions if you are open to other ways of viewing the world. The ways that you were taught about the world and history may not be the same as what others were taught. People cannot engage in meaningful communication if they are unwilling to suspend or reexamine their assumptions about the world. For example, some Europeans believe that the United States becomes involved in other countries' affairs so that it can control its oil interests, whereas many U.S. Americans believe that concern over human rights is the motivation. If neither group will consider the opinion of the other, they will be unlikely to sustain a mutually satisfying conversation.
Improving Your Intercultural Communication Skills
8.6 Discuss ways to improve your own intercultural communication skills.
How can you communicate more effectively across cultures? As with ethics, no magic formula exists, but here are several suggestions.
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The Importance of Small Group Communication
10.1 Identify four reasons for learning about small group communication.
Small groups seem to be an integral part of life. You probably belong to a number of groups —social groups, course project groups, work groups at your job, or perhaps support or interest groups in your community. However, you might be surprised to discover that learning how to communicate better in groups can actually enhance your academic and professional achievements. Let's see why this is so.
What Is Small Group Communication?
10.2 Define small group communication and virtual small groups.
To acquire a clear idea of what we'll be discussing in this chapter, let's consider two types of groups: (1) a group of people waiting in line for a movie and (2) a group of students working on a semester-long research project. The first type of group is not the focus of this chapter, whereas the second is. We define small group communication as "communication among a small number of people who share a common purpose or goal, who feel connected to each other, and coordinate their behavior" (Arrow et al., 2000, p. 34). Let's look more closely at who the small group in this definition is.
Small Group Communication and the Individual: Roles
10.3 Identify examples of task, relational, and disruptive small group roles.
The quality of a group depends on the contributions of individual members – so much so that one reason for ineffective groups is the poor communication skills of individual members. Lack of communication among group members can even be disastrous. Poor communication between pilot and copilot has been cited as the primary cause of several deadly airplane crashes. Fortunately, poor teamwork doesn't usually have such disastrous consequences; nevertheless, communication scholar Lawrence Frey (1994) points out that "communication is the lifeblood that flows through the veins of groups" (p. x). To better understand communication processes in small groups, it is helpful to think of its two primary dimensions: task communication and relational communication. Task communication focuses on getting the job done and solving the problem at hand —for example, requesting information or asking for clarification. Relational communication focuses on group maintenance and interpersonal relationships, such as offering encouragement or mediating disagreement. These two types of communication are thoroughly mixed during group interaction; in fact, one statement can fill both functions. When a group is getting bogged down in discussion, one member might encourage the group and focus on the task by saying something like "All of these
ideas show how creative we are. Which do you think would be the most useful in helping us solve our problem?" To help you understand how individuals can contribute to (or detract from) the performance of task and relationship communication, we explore the various communication roles that members of small groups perform. We then discuss another important ingredient of small groups —leadership —and in so doing, we present several important theories of leadership. Finally, we'll look at principles and processes that can make small groups effective.
Small Group Communication and the Individual: Leadership
10.4 Describe five theories of group leadership.
A group or organization's success is often directly related to the presence of good leadership, online or in person, and leadership should be a concern for all of us because it is not just a quality for those with formal subordinates. Rather, leadership occurs in many forms and contexts; as one expert says, leadership can take place "during a sales call, a customer service response, a family decision or a meeting with friends" (Gollent, 2007). As we describe leadership characteristics and theories, think about the ways in which you may play leadership roles in the various groups and organizations in which you are a member.
Effective Small Group Communication
10.5 Describe the characteristics of communication that occur during the four phases of small group decision making.
Now that we have described the important role of communication in effective leadership and various theories of group leadership, we are ready to ask the question: What communication behaviors are necessary for effective small group interaction? The answer seems to be that effective groups maintain a balance of task and relational communication, and the sequence of each appears to be more important than the relative amount of each. For example, after an intense period of task talk, group members might defuse their tension with positive social, or relational, talk and then return to task talk (Pavitt, 1999).
The Individual, Small Group Communication, and Society: Power and Diversity
10.6 Discuss how diversity influences small group processes.
Small group communication, like all communication, is influenced by societal forces. The world outside influences this form of communication in two important respects: (1) the way power is used inside and outside groups, and (2) the role cultural diversity plays.
Ethics and Small Group Communication
10.7 Give three types of guidelines for communicating more ethically in small group communication.
Ethical communication in small groups is especially important because the success of the group and the task depend on it. One might argue that being in a group carries additional ethical responsibilities because one's individual actions can affect how people think about and react to other members of the group and their ideas. In short, in groups, you are no longer responsible only for yourself but for other members as well. Consider three types of ethical guidelines: (1) those aimed at strengthening group relationships, (2) those dealing with specific communication practices, and (3) those related to group decisions.
Relational ethics involve demonstrating commitment to the group. For example, an ethical small group member attends group meetings and participates. As we've discussed, equal participation, buy-in, and establishing trust are all important aspects of group success that cannot be achieved when members are absent from or silent in group discussions. Another relational ethic involves doing your fair share of the group work because equal participation extends to sharing equally in the responsibilities for completing the tasks. A third ethical guideline to strengthen small-group relationships is to maintain open channels of communication (maintaining contact with other group members, contacting others when needed, and responding to others in a timely manner).
In considering ethical communication practices in small groups, it might be helpful to think about the ethical guidelines discussed in Chapter 1 and consider how they might apply to a small group context. First, being truthful in your communication is particularly important because you are making contributions that affect larger collective decisions (Hargrove, 1998). Truthfulness also includes being accurate and avoiding exaggeration. For example, if you were reporting facts about crime on campus, you would offer statistics, not just say, "I found out that crime is really a huge problem." Although you should strive for accuracy and honesty in your language, there may be times when you should not say everything you know —for example, when you should respect the confidentiality of others, including group members. If your friend has been raped and you know this information might be helpful to your group discussion about campus security, you should ask for your friend's permission before divulging this information. Similarly, group members may disclose personal information in the group discussion that they may not wish repeated outside the group.
Secondly, ethical group members also work toward communicating authentically, as discussed in Chapter 1. Why is authentic communication essential? As we noted previously, group cohesion and trust are important to the performance and success of groups. Authentic communication that is open and free from pretense and language that is inclusive and not hurtful to others go a long way in promoting the kind of group cohesion necessary for group effectiveness. Finally, as a receiver, you must listen with an open mind while also evaluating
others' contributions. Doing so will enhance the quality of discussions and help prevent groupthink, in which groups jump to premature conclusions and decisions.
A third area of small group ethics concerns the collective actions of the group members. For example, what if you find a project paper on the Internet that closely resembles the project you've been working on? Your group is running out of time at the end of the semester and it would be easy to copy portions of the paper, making only a few minor changes. What ethical guidelines apply here? Perhaps the ethics of fairness and taking responsibility for one's own actions apply. Submitting someone else's work instead of your own is not fair to other students in the course who did their own work, and taking responsibility for poor time management as a group is a more ethical action than using someone else's work.
Improving Your Small Group Communication Skills
10.8 Discuss ways to improve your small group communication skills.
Although no strategies will work in every group communication situation, two strategies can help you be more effective in many of them. First, cultivate an interdependent or collectivist attitude, a "we" orientation instead of a "me" orientation, and work toward collaborative communication, whether working face-to-face or online (Lewis et al., 2010). This means that you must sacrifice some of your personal ambition, needs, and wants in favor of the group's needs and work to ensure buy-in from all group members. People who are extremely individualistic may find this difficult. Yet those with a more collectivist attitude can influence group processes toward more effective communication, more participation, and more satisfaction of all members.
A related guideline is to be cooperative. Cooperativeness helps to establish group harmony in working conditions and can provide individuals with interpersonal help, making the job easier and less demanding and making individuals less likely to experience burnout in their group work. Thus, cooperative group members may be more satisfied with individual and group performance (Lambertz-Berndt & Blight, 2016).
In addition to cultivating an interdependent attitude and being cooperative, striving for cohesion is also important in successful small group relationships and task accomplishment. Cohesion occurs when group members trust each other. Further, group success depends on the participation of each member, but members are unlikely to give their best to the group if they can't trust other members to do the same. Trust is particularly important in virtual groups, where members may have less face-to-face interaction that might otherwise provide important clues to the intent or attitude of fellow group members. Several strategies build trust and cohesion:
• Focus on the strengths of all group members and recognize their contributions to group goals. Be sure to acknowledge all group achievements.
• Remind the group of common interests and background experiences. Doing this can help build cohesion, prevent unnecessary conflict, and strengthen group identity.
• Be observant and notice when a member might be feeling unappreciated or uninvolved in the group. Encourage that person to participate. People gain trust and become more trusting as they participate, especially if their participation is encouraged. Fortunately, more trust leads to more cohesion and stronger group identity, which in turn leads to better communication, more satisfaction, and more cohesion.
Observe how the group members in the following video solve their problem. Then answer the questions in the quiz that follows.
In sum, the effectiveness of a small group depends in large part on the communication and the relationships established among the members. As a group member, you can promote (or inhibit) the productive communication needed. We believe that using the tools discussed in this chapter not only will make your small group work more effectively but also will make it more enjoyable.
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The Importance of Communication in Close Relationships
9.1 Describe the importance of close relationships.
Friends play an important role in people's lives. Close relationships are a source of much happiness (and
some distress) and serve as a significant context within which a person s interactions take place
(Donaghue & Fallon, 2003). As illustrated in It Happened to Me: Olivia, friends can come to the rescue in
a crisis by providing both emotional and physical support. Relationships with friends, lovers, and family
members also offer a sense of belonging, help alleviate loneliness, and are central to psychological and
physical health.
Researchers have found that loneliness, or a lack of close relationships, is associated with psychological
disorders such as depression and anxiety Miller, 2002). People with even a few close relationships
experience greater well-being than those who are lonely (Gierveld & Tilburg, 1995). People with
satisfying relationships also experience better physical health. For example, an examination of 148
studies found that the quantity and quality of individuals' social relationships were linked both to their
mental health and to their longevity. The authors found that high-quality social relationships were
associated with a 50 percent increased likelihood of living longer (Holt-Lunstad et al., 2010).
Similarly, studies of marital relationships reveal that people in happy marriages are less likely to
experience high blood pressure and serious heart episodes (Holt-Lunstad et al., 2008). Thus, close
relationships can improve not only our satisfaction with life but also our health.
The importance of close relationships in people's lives is one reason the incidence of anxiety and
depression increased during the COVID-19 pandemic (Zarefsky, 2020). At one point, even former First
Lady Michelle Obama revealed that she was experiencing low-level depression (Zarefsky, 2020). Why is
being quarantined difficult for so many people? As you have learned throughout these chapters, Our
relationships are integral to who we are —so much so that our interactions with others shape our
identities. You may remember that in Chapter 2 we discussed that One of the ways we know who we are
is through how other people communicate with us. In addition, people we are close to provide love,
affection, and much-needed support. Of course, being socially isolated because potentially one could
become seriously ill is difficult, but being lonely because one lacks important communication skills is
even more difficult.The importance of close relationships in people's lives is one reason the incidence of
anxiety and depression increased during the COVID-19 pandemic (Zarefsky, 2020). At one point, even
former First Lady Michelle Obama revealed that she was experiencing low-level depression (Zarefsky,
2020). Why is being quarantined difficult for so many people? As you have learned throughout these
chapters, Our relationships are integral to who we are —so much so that our interactions with others
shape our identities. You may remember that in Chapter 2 we discussed that One of the ways we know
who we are is through how other people communicate with us. In addition, people we are close to
provide love, affection, and much-needed support. Of course, being socially isolated because potentially
one could become seriously ill is difficult, but being lonely because one lacks important communication
skills is even more difficult.
The relationships we develop with friends, family, and romantic partners are qualitatively different from
other types of interpersonal relationships, such as those relationships people have with their mail
carriers or Starbucks's barista (LaFollette, 1996). Close relationships are distinguished by their frequency,
intensity, and diversity of contact (Kelley et al., 1983) as well as by their level of intimacy, importance,
and satisfaction (Berg & Piner, 1990). These relationships also require considerable time to develop. For
example, communication professor Jeffrey Hall (2018) found that it takes around 30 hours of interaction
for individuals to become casual friends and about 20 more hours for them to transition to being friends.
Becoming good friends (more than 140 hours) and best friends (after 300 hours) takes even longer. Thus,
creating and sustaining close, satisfying relationships requires both skill and considerable investment of
time.
People in close relationships see each other as unique and irreplaceable. They are more open in their
communication with each other than with other people, and they tend to disclose more personal details
(Janz, 2000). In addition, the communication in these relationships is influenced more by individual
factors (as opposed to social factors) than is usually true of casual relationships. That is, people in close
relationships know each other better and share more experiences, so they are better able to adapt their
own communication and more effectively interpret their partner's communication. This can lead to
greater ease in communicating as well as increased understanding and intimacy. For these reasons,
people in close relationships expect their relationships to endure over time because they are committed
to them (Wright, 1999).
Casual relationships, in contrast, involve little disclosure or affection and are perceived as
interchangeable because they are usually role-based, as between a salesperson and a customer (Janz,
2000). For example, although you might like your mail carrier and would miss seeing her if she quit her
job, you probably would be perfectly content to receive your mail from someone new. But if your fiancé
or best friend terminated your relationship, it's unlikely you would be content with a substitute. Because
casual relationships are not based on the participants' knowledge of each other as individuals, the
communication that occurs within them tends to be influenced more by social norms for interacting and,
therefore, are less personal and more superficial.
Close Relationships and the Individual
9.2 Explain five communication theories of relationship development.
Because relationship development is an important aspect of life and because the process sometimes
goes awry —for example, approximately one third of first marriages end in divorce or separation within
10 years (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2013) – scholars have devoted considerable effort toward creating
theories and models to explain it. No single theory can explain how all human relationships develop;
however, the following theories offer insight into how relationships develop and change over time as
people communicate with one another.
Communicating in Friendships and Romantic Relationships
9.3 Identify tactics for initiating, maintaining, and terminating friendships and romantic relationships.
In the following, Jeff describes how he sees the difference between friendship and romantic
relationships:
You're more likely to let your friends see you warts and all. There's no fear of rejection, for me anyway…
In a romantic relationship, you don't want them to see you at your worst.
You want them to think you're very well adjusted. And your friends know that's a total crock so there's
no use even pretending. (Reeder, 1996)
As Jeff's description illustrates, friendships can differ markedly from romances in how much we reveal,
especially in the early stages. But other differences exist as well. For example, we typically expect
exclusivity from our romantic partners but not from our friends. Also, people often have higher
expectations for their romantic partners, especially with regard to physical attractiveness, social status,
and a pleasing personality (Sprecher & Regan, 2002). And we may require greater expressions of
commitment and caring from romantic partners than from friends (Goodwin & Tang, 1991). In the
following sections, we explore in more detail the similarities and differences between friendships and
romances.
The Individual, Relationship Communication, and Society
9.4 Explain the role that society plays in the formation and maintenance of interpersonal relationships.
Most heterosexuals are unaware of the effect cultural norms have on their romance choices (O' Brien &
Foley, 1999) and on how they express affection and commitment in them. Until 50 years ago, partners of
different races could not legally have intimate relationships in the United States; until the year 2000,
Alabama still had a law against interracial marriages (Root, 2001; Sollors, 2000). Unsurprisingly, the vast
majority of marriages in the United States are still racially homogeneous. Moreover, they occur primarily
between people of similar religious backgrounds (Watson et al., 2004), economic status (Kalmijin, 1994),
age (Watson et al., 2004), education (Bennhold, 2012), weight (Schafer & Keith, 1990), and appearance
(Little et al., 2006). Such a high degree of similarity, or homogeneity, suggests that individual preference
is not the only factor influencing our choices.
Commonly held stereotypes also influence choices about whom one should or should not date and
marry. For example, some interracial pairings are more common than others. In 75 percent of Black-
White marriages, the husband is Black, and in 75 percent of White Asian couples, the husband is White
(Sailer, 2003). The frequency of these pairings reflects strong societal norms about who is attractive as a
partner (and who is not).
As discussed earlier (in Chapter , Communication norms vary across cultures, and the romance
context is no exception. For example, in some cultures (e.g., Japan, Indonesia, Kuwait), romantic couples
rarely express their feelings or affections in public (Chung, 2016). Other cultures, as in Indonesia, would
be shocked by kissing in public or other public displays of affection. If you were to do so, you could face
social backlash or even legal consequences, depending on what area of the country you are in ( Starmer-
Smith, 2004). Thus, every relationship is situated within a set of societal and cultural norms and
expectations, and what occurs within that relationship is likely to be affected by those norms.
Cultural norms and legal policies also impact the ways in which LGBTQIA+ individuals can communicate
with and about their romantic partners. They often can't express affection in public without fear of
negative, even violent, responses. For this reason, they may refer to their lovers as "friends" or
"roommates" or attempt to conceal their romantic partner's sex by never using pronouns such as him or
her. Having to alter one's verbal and nonverbal behavior to conform to society's norms may seem a small
matter if you are heterosexual. But imagine what life would be like if in many contexts you could never
acknowledge your partner or you had to pretend that you were "just friends." Not only would this be
exhausting, it would significantly inhibit your ability to be close to others. Unfortunately, this is the life
that many LGBTQIA+ live.
The practices of specific institutions (e.g., religions) impact our communication and relationships. For
example, many faiths have long prescribed whom their members should marry, how many spouses they
could have, and even if they should date. For example, the Mormon faith once permitted men to have
more than one wife (although it no longer does), Muslim men are instructed to marry Muslim women,
and Hindus often discourage young people from dating and selecting their own marital partners.
Although over time religions can and do alter their positions on these issues (e.g., the Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter Day Saints' position on polygamy), they may be slower to change than other social
institutions. For example, a recent Pew Research Center (2015) survey found that although some
Catholics are open to nontraditional families, 9 in 10 U.S. Catholics still believe that a household headed
by a married mother and father is ideal for child-rearing. In these ways, religious institutions and beliefs
influence how we view relationships as well as how we act within them and communicate about our
relationships.
Similarly, business organizations create policies and practices that affect the types of relationships and
communication practices their employees can have. Some examples include bans against "affectional
relationships," at work, fraternization —or relationships that cross the organizational hierarchy -in the
military, and limits on nepotism (hiring one's family members). They also express their views on same-
sex relationships and the institution of marriage by providing, or not providing, domestic-partner
benefits or even firing employees who marry same-sex partners. Organizations often create rules that
attempt to control and influence employees' communication through sexual harassment policies,
secrecy clauses, and dictates on what can be communicated to others outside the organization. Yet
another way organizations influence employee communication is by firing those whose communication
— on social media or in person — they do not wish to have associated with their company.
Ethics and Close Relationships
9.5 Explain how to ensure that interactions with close others are authentic.
Although communicating ethically is important in all contexts and relationships, it is nowhere more
important than in the context of close relationships. If we communicate unethically with our friends,
family, and romantic partners, the consequences may be severe. Certainly relationships have ended as a
result of deception, secrecy, and even the truth, too harshly expressed. All the ethical considerations we
have discussed throughout this text are important in close relationships, but here we will focus on
authentic communication.
Authentic communication is particularly important in close relationships for two reasons: We expect our
closest friends and family members to be authentic, or "real," with us, and authentic communication is
connected to intimacy. Why is authenticity in communication an ethical issue? Because inauthentic
communication attempts to manipulate the interaction or the other person for one's own goals, it can be
considered a type of deception, given that during inauthentic communication, one hides how one really
feels and misrepresents one's feelings and beliefs. In addition, inauthentic communication denies people
the information they need to make an informed choice about their relationships with others.
For most people, intimacy is based on the feeling that one knows and is known by another. When we
feel intimate with others, we believe that we are connecting with their "true" selves and that we are
able to be our truest selves in the relationship. However, when people are not autentic in their
communication with those close to them or deny them the right to communicate authentically, it can
decrease intimacy and even lead to termination of the relationship. And if we discover that an intimate
friend or partner was being inautentic and manipulative, we may feel not only deceived but betrayed.
For example, if you discover that your friend has been pretending to like your romantic partner while
making negative remarks about them on the sly, you might feel angry and betrayed. In addition, if you
want to continue the relationship, you now have to deal not only with your friend's feelings about your
romantic partner but also with your friend's deceit.
How can we ensure that our interactions with close others are authentic? We can do so by being open to
others' communication efforts, being open in our own communication, taking responsibility for what we
say, and respecting the rights of others to speak. In effect, we need to avoid the three "pitfalls" of
inautentic comunication: topic avoidance, meaning denial, and disqualification.
1. Topic avoidance. To maintain an authentic relationship with another, it is vital to confront issues that
are important to the relationship and to the other person. If one or both people in a relationship prohibit
the other from discussing issues that are important to either of them, it can be difficult for them to
maintain intimacy and commitment. For example, if a good friend wishes to discuss their sexual identity
and the person they are speaking to refuses to do so, they risk damaging the closeness and relationship
with the other person by shutting down communication on this topic.
2. Meaning denial. In addition, authentic communication involves taking responsibility for what we say
and mean. If one is angry and teases a friend harshly because of it, it is inauthentic to deny that one is
angry and trying to be hurtful. Even worse, if one puts the onus on the friend for being "too sensitive,"
they may be compounding the problem. This behavior is also an example of "gaslighting," which is a
tactic used to exert power or control over another person by encouraging them to question their reality
(Sarkis, 2017). Repeated interactions such as this can undermine trust and intimacy.
3. Disqualification. Finally, authentic communicators allow others to speak regardless of their positions
or experiences. If a single friend attempts to give relationship support and advice, they may feel
disqualified if their friend refuses to listen because they aren't married. We also engage in
disqualification when we deny a romantic partner the right to speak on a topic because we perceive
ourselves to be more expert on the topic. If a person finds themselves saying, "What could you know
about this?" then they may be disqualifying the other party and potentially engaging in inauthentic
communication.
Engaging in authentic communication can help people develop and maintain their relationships more
effectively. To help you begin the process, we conclude this chapter with suggestions for how you can
communicate more effectively by being open and direct with others.
Improving Your Close Relationship Communication Skills
9.6 Articulate how to recognize passive-aggressive communication.
Do you know what it means to communicate passive-aggressively? You may have heard someone call
another person "passive-aggressive," but can you identify the behavior in others— or yourself? We use
passive-aggressive communication when we indirectly communicate our negative feelings and reactions
instead of openly talking about them. For example, have you asked a friend for a favor that they agreed
to do, but then they repeatedly "forgot" to do it? Of course, sometimes we do just forget things, but if
you sense your friend is reluctant rather than has a poor memory, they may be communicating that they
regret agreeing but also aren't willing to talk about it openly.
Social worker Signe Whitson calls passive-aggressiveness "hostile cooperation" (Long et al., 2016). By
this, she means that people who are passive-aggressive appear to be cooperative in that they agree to
others' requests, but fundamentally, their behavior is hostile or uncooperative because they don't follow
through and/or nonverbally express negative feelings. These mixed signals can frustrate and upset others
because they can't solve the problem.
That is, they can't just let the issue go because they sense the other's anger, but they can't retract the
request because the offending party says it is not a problem. In addition, they can't get the angry party
to talk about it. What type of behavior does this sound like? If you guessed gaslighting, you are correct!
How do you know if you or someone else is being passive-aggressive? You or they might be if:
• You/they agree to do something reluctantly and feel resentment about it.
• You/they are unwilling to be truthful about negative feelings.
• You/they complain to third parties about being taken advantage of or cheated.
• You/they make repeated excuses regarding why the task agreed to hasn't been done.
• You/they use email, texts, and social media to avoid having to be open with another person.
You may have seen passive-aggressive behavior play out if you have lived in an apartment complex or
neighborhood where people disagree on appropriate behavior. This occurs when one person lodges a
complaint against another secretly or anonymously to the neighborhood association or apartment
supervisor but then acts friendly with the person they have complained about. People who call the
police on their acquaintances or neighbors because they are unhappy with something they have done
are engaging in passive-aggressiveness and potentially causing more severe harm than they ever
intended.
Why is being passive-aggressive bad for our relationships? It is for many reasons. First, feeling resentful
toward one's friends, family, and romantic partners increases our anger, decreases our patience, and
erodes our feelings for one another. Also, strong relationships are built on feelings of closeness and
acceptance. When one partner feels resentful, it inhibits their feelings of love and affection, and since
generally we can tell when our partners are angry or upset with us, we don't feel loved and accepted
when they exhibit it. Finally, it is very difficult to feel close to someone when we are unable to be
truthful with them or trust that they are truthful with us.
What should you do if you think you communicate passive-aggressively at times?
• First, determine when you are most likely to engage in passive-aggressive communication. Does it
occur with specific people in your life? Does it happen when you are asked to agree to something you
don't want to do? To change a behavior, you must be able to identify that you are engaging in it and
when.
• Accept that your behavior needs to change. It will not only improve your relationships; clearly stating
how you feel and what you want will make you happier.
• Don't agree to something until you have time to think it over. If your romantic partner asks if it is okay
if they go on a weekend getaway with friends on your birthday, don't say yes (or no) immediately. Take
time to explore how you feel now and how you are likely to feel in the future.
• If you don't want to agree, then you need to tell your partner honestly and calmly how you feel and
why you feel that way.
• If you agree to something and later regret having agreed or disagreed to it and are feeling upset or
angry, again you need to tell you partner how you are feeling. It is true that being open and honest can
lead to hurt feelings on occasion, but we can work through those moments. Agreeing with your partner
and then punishing them because you now feel resentful only creates a negative environment and can
lead to anger, conflict, and dissatisfaction.
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The Importance of Organizational Communication
11.1 Explain the importance of understanding communication in organizations.
Because you participate in organizations regularly, you will benefit from understanding how to communicate more effectively with and within them. Doing so will enhance your professional success, allow you to ask more informed questions about everyday organizational practices, and help you decide what organizations you wish to frequent and support.
Much of your success within organizations is connected to your communication abilities. For example, if you want an organization to hire you, you must first display good interviewing skills. If you want a promotion, it may be essential to understand your boss's goals and beliefs but also to effectively engage in what some business experts call "a series of continuing conversations" with your boss (Knight, 2018). And if you seek public or civic office, you must have strong public-speaking and social-influence skills to gain support from your political party and endorsements from influential organizations.
In addition to enhancing your professional success, understanding organizational communication will help you ask more informed questions about everyday organizational practices, such as how the corporation you work for determines pay raises, how a nonprofit charity you support can become a United Way organization, or how you can influence legislation in your community. Knowing what questions to ask and how to ask them will improve your ability to accomplish your goals. Finally, given that a wide variety of religious, corporate, and community organizations exist, there is a limit to how many you can support. Understanding how to question organizations and how to interpret their responses and policies can help you make informed choices regarding which ones to embrace. For example, you might decide not to purchase products or services from for-profit organizations that force their employees to work mandatory overtime at the expense of their home lives. Or you might decide that you are better off working for an organization whose goals and beliefs you support strongly because your agreement with those goals likely will influence your career success.
Defining Organizational Communication
11.2 Define organizations and explain their communication functions and structures.
Next, we define what we mean when we say organization, and we explain the role communication plays in it. As part of this definition, we focus on two aspects common to all organizing efforts: communication functions and structures. We then conclude this section by examining the role of communication in establishing organizational cultures.
Organizational Communication and the Individual
11.3 Understand the types of communication that occur among coworkers and explain their functions.
If you wish to influence the organizations you interact with, you need to understand some of the basic types of communication that help create organizations and organizational life. It is important to be familiar with guidelines for how you might perform these types of communication most successfully. Although all the communication skills and abilities we examine in this book will definitely make you a better communicator in organizational contexts, here we focus on three types of communication that are integral to organizations: assimilation, supervisor-subordinate communication, and coworker communication. We also explore three types of organizational dilemmas or tensions that employees must manage.
The Individual, Organizational Communication, and Society
11.4 Discuss current social influences on organizations and organizational communication.
In this section, we explore how organizations and the societies in which they are located exert influence on each other and the individuals within them. First, we examine two of the most significant societal forces that impact organizational communication —history and globalization. Next, we discuss three important recent organizational practices that influence individuals and society, including the development of a new social contract between organizations and employees, the rise of urgent organizations, and the blurring of boundaries between home and work. Finally, we examine power relations within organizations and their impact on employees. We address these topics to explicate how each has influenced beliefs about organizational communication and its performance.
Ethics and Organizational Communication
11.5 Distinguish between individual and communal perspectives on organizational ethics.
As a result of organizational behavior such as providing bonuses to CEOs who lead failing financial companies and the Boeing 737 MAX jet crashes, U.S. Americans are paying more attention to business ethics than perhaps ever before (Holt, 2020; Matthews & Gandel, 2015), and organizations are being advised to solicit and listen to employee complaints regarding ethics breaches (Bisel & Adame, 2018). However, observers don't agree on where responsibility for ethical behavior and communication rests within the organization. For example, who should be held accountable for the engineering design flaws and lack of transparency at Boeing and the FAA's failure to adequately oversee the jet's design? Should only the engineers who designed the systems be prosecuted? Should the managers of the company be accountable? How about former Boeing CEO Matthias Muller? Is he responsible for the ethical standards within his company? When attempting to determine the ethical choices and decisions organizations should make, people usually view the process either from the individual perspective or the communal perspective (Brown, 1989).
Many U.S. Americans take an individualistic perspective, viewing ethical failures as resting on the shoulders of specific individuals within the organization. From this outlook, each person in the corporation is responsible for their own behavior. In the case of Boeing, then, only the managers themselves who ignored complaints and concerns raised by engineers about decisions that were being made are accountable. In the communal view, however, individuals are considered to be members of a community and are all partially responsible for the behavior of its members. The assumption here is that the ethical standards within an organization are created by and should be monitored and reinforced by all of its members. From this perspective, everyone within the Boeing organization, especially the managers and CEO, is responsible, because they had a duty to create and maintain high ethical standards within the company.
When ethics is discussed in organizational contexts, the focus typically is on the rights of the individual —such as the rights to free speech or privacy —and policies and behaviors that infringe on these rights are seen as unethical. However, a communal approach focuses on the "common good," or what is in the best interests of the entire community, and recent organization scholars emphasize the importance of an organizational climate that fosters ethical communication and behaviors (Teresi et al., 2019). Thus, the morality of an action is assessed based on its consequences for the group. In an individualistic approach, the responsibility for the Boeing 737 MAX's design flaws lies with the engineers who directly created the design. From a communal approach, the consequences of this design error are harmful to the organization as well as society, and the people responsible for that harm are the members of the organization collectively, that is, the organization itself.
Problems exist with both approaches. When we view individuals alone as responsible, they alone are punished, whereas the organization is left essentially unchanged. Yet, when we view corporations in a completely communal way and hold them responsible for their unethical practices, no individual may be held accountable or liable. Consequently, those responsible for the decision to engage in unethical and often illegal practices may not suffer any consequences —and may be free to continue these practices.
How should we balance these two approaches? Most likely, we need to hold both the organization and the individuals who lead them responsible for their practices —just as political leaders are tried in war courts for crimes against humanity, even though their subordinates performed the atrocities. At the same time, corporate leaders need to consider the impacts of their decisions on both individuals and society. To read about one student's experience with organizational ethics, see It Happened to Me: Nichole.
You Are a Manager
Making ethical decisions in the workplace is difficult, and no one knows that better than managers. Employees in authoritative positions often toe ethical lines each week, determining how much information to share with their team members, how to handle conflict, and which decisions will bring about the most reasonable consequences.
You have worked at a firm for three years and recently got promoted to manager. You are in charge of a team of eight people: five you consider to be friends, two you consider to be good friends, and one recently transferred to your team and knows you only as manager.
Review the following scenarios and determine how you would react if you were a manager.
Scenario 1
You went up for a promotion at the same time as one of your friends. He has been at the company a few months longer than you, but ultimately you received the promotion over him. You are now his manager, which you find awkward, because he initially trained you when you joined the company. Your new dynamic is not working. You've been the team manager for three weeks, but your co-worker tries to undermine you at every turn.
He fights your decisions at meetings, he doesn't do his work according to your standards, and you recently found out he's been purposefully instructing other team members to follow his working guidelines, not yours.
This behavior is unacceptable, and you need to put a stop to it. If this behavior continues, the team will view him as the leader, not you. At the same time, your co-worker is a respected member of the team and has retained strong friendships with other members. You fear if you publicly admonish him, your team will turn on you and further slip from your control.
What do you do?
Pick from one of the options below:
• Call your co-worker out in a team meeting.
• Set aside a private meeting with your co-worker.
• You go straight to your boss and express your dissatisfaction with your co-worker.
Call your co-worker out in a team meeting.
You're tired of being steamrolled. At your next team meeting, you set the record straight. You lead by saying it's imperative your team listens to you and follows the rules you are setting forward. You know some of them are receiving conflicting instructions from other members of the team, but that behavior needs to stop immediately.
This method is not as effective as you would have liked. Your team is now confused. Some of them know what you are referring to, but others are completely in the dark and begin questioning their work on every project. You are now flooded with simple questions, and your team's productivity has started to stall. Your relationship with your co-worker is now more strained than ever. You are sensing a deep divide among your team – those who side with him, and those who are confused.
Set aside a private meeting with your co-worker.
You start the meeting by acknowledging that this conversation will be awkward for you both, but you want to have a frank discussion about your co-worker's behavior over the past three weeks. You call out instances where he has undermined your authority, and you ask him to respect your decisions and your new position – especially in front of others. You conclude the meeting by stressing his importance to the team and explain that you'd like to find a way to work together peacefully.
Your co-worker admits his wrongdoing and apologizes. He expresses that – as much as he hates to admit it – he is jealous. He acknowledges that he has not been very supportive of you or your new position, and says he will make an effort to be a better team player in the future.
You go straight to your boss and express your dissatisfaction with your co-worker.
You conclude that even if you call out your co-worker, nothing concrete will come of it. The only solution, then, is to go to your boss and have her mediate the situation. You schedule a meeting, explain the situation, and leave it in her hands.
Your boss is disappointed in you. She indicates that they chose for this position because they believed you had a better managerial instinct and that they wouldn't have to hold your hand through difficult conversations. Being a manager means being the bad guy sometimes, even to your friends. She tells you to go back to your office, rethink your approach, then meet with her next week to let her know how it was resolved.
Scenario 2
You have been managing your team for a full two months. You have a great rapport with your team members, and you remain friendly with most of them: you go to after work social events with them, you re all friends on Facebook, and you consider a few of them to be your best friends.
Your boss calls you into a meeting and explains that the company is not doing well. It will need to lay off 15 percent of its workforce. Two of your team members are affected. She explains that layoffs will happen next week, and you are not to breathe a word of this to your team. She fears if word gets out about layoffs, the team's productivity will go down. You are conflicted. As the team manager, you agree with your boss.
People would panic if they knew about layoffs, and they would not be focused on their tasks. As their friend, however, you feel it is your duty to warn the two members of the impending layoffs. If you give them a heads up now, they may be able to get a leg up on job hunting.
What do you do?
Pick from one of the options below:
• You tell the team layoffs are coming.
• You tell the affected members that they will be laid off.
• You tell the team nothing.
You tell the team layoffs are coming. It's unreasonable for your boss to expect you to remain tight-lipped, you decide. You hold a team meeting and explain to your staff that the company will need to perform layoffs next week. You explain that only two people from your team will be laid off and that layoffs are common among most businesses. You end the meeting by explaining that no one should panic, and it's imperative they don't breathe a word of this to anyone else – you were instructed not to tell them, but you thought it was only fair they knew. Your team is outraged. And afraid. They ask you many questions during the meeting, most of which you don't know how to answer.
Over the next week, three of your team members quit, two tell you they are job hunting, and productivity dips significantly. One of the members who quit told your boss that she should be ashamed of herself for trying to keep the information about layoffs quiet.
Your friendships stay intact but your boss is not happy. She has booked a meeting with you…for next week.
You tell the affected members that they will be laid off.
You fear the mass panic that may occur as a result of telling the entire team, so you pull the two affected employees aside and explain the situation. You stress that you are happy to be a job reference for them both, and that this decision was not yours, but the company's. You end the meeting by asking them both to keep this information to themselves – your boss told you not to say anything, and you want to make sure the team doesn't panic.
Much in the same way that you disobeyed your boss, your team members felt it was their ethical duty to do the same. By lunch, your entire team knows about the layoffs. You have members running up to you throughout the day asking if they need to be worried. By the end of the week, two additional team members put in their resignations, telling your boss that they fear for the future of the company.
Your friends don't understand why you tried to keep this from them.They lose trust in you as both a boss and a friend. Additionally, your boss is not happy. She has booked a meeting with you…for next week.
You tell the team nothing.
As much as you'd love to warn your friends, you decide it is not your place to spread this news. You do as your boss instructs and maintain the status quo.
When layoffs occur, your team feels blindsided. They are upset they lost two of their good friends, and they fear for the future of their jobs. They respect you as a manager, but your friendships are now strained.
Logically, they understand why you couldn't warn them, but emotionally, they can't seem to grasp it.
Your friendships are strained, but your boss is pleased with you.
Scenario 3
You have developed quite the crush on one of your team members. Your company has a very strict policy forbidding managers and team members from dating, but you think this person could be the real deal – and you're pretty confident the feeling is mutual. After weeks of flirting, you decide you cannot continue working like this.
You set a private meeting with your team member. You express your feelings and indicate that it has started to affect your work performance. Much to your excitement – and dismay – you learn the feelings are reciprocated. Your team member indicates that they would love to pursue a relationship, but if you're concerned about your professional career, they would respect the boundaries you set in stone.
You are at quite a serious crossroads. You need to come to a decision now — do you date your team member, or do you keep it professional?
Pick from one of the options below:
• You go for the relationship, and you report your relationship to the HR department.
• You go for the relationship, and you keep it secret.
• You do not go for the relationship.
You go for the relationship, and you report your relationship to the HR department. You know you will never truly be happy as co-workers only, so you tell your team member that you want to go for it. However, it's important to you that you report the relationship. You don't want other people finding out and reporting you, and you'd prefer not to sneak around the office. You are confident you can keep your head and your heart separated at work.
Your boss – and your HR department – disagree. You are required to fill out an awkward questionnaire about your relationship, including questions like "What will you do if you breakup?" "How will you respond when people accuse you of favoritism?" and "Is this the first office relationship you've had?" Further, your boss explains that you cannot remain on the same team while you date – you need to move or your team member needs to move. She needs a decision by end-of-day.
Guess it's time for another awkward conversation between you two.
You go for the relationship, and you keep it secret.
You know you will never truly be happy as co-workers only, so you tell your team member that you want to go for it. You do not want this getting out, so you explain that it has to remain completely secret – you can't post about it on social media, you can't tell work friends, and you can't hang out in public spots where you may be spotted together. This is a tough way to start a new relationship, but you're confident that if you can make it through these trials, you'll be a stronger couple for it.
You find the privacy to be draining. You are constantly worried that someone is reading your work chats, you keep your phone on your body at all times, and you stagger the times you enter and leave the office. The pressure is too intense and you're not quite sure how much longer you can handle it.
Guess it's time for another awkward conversation between you two.
You do not go for the relationship.
As much as you really like your team member, you know the rules and you know yourself – you don't think the HR department would react well and you know privacy is not your thing. You explain that you will need to remain professional, and that a relationship is not on the horizon while you both remain on the same team.
Your co-worker is crushed, but they understand. You find the next few weeks to be surprisingly difficult. You two have set new boundaries – you disconnected on social media, you don't text after work, and you limit your work chats to work-related items only. You feel like you' ve lost a best friend, and you are devastated when you discover they are seeing someone new.
Conclusion
There are no black-and-white answers to ethical dilemmas in the workplace. What may seem like the right call to you may not be the right call to someone else. Making ethical decisions as a manager requires you to weigh all your options prior to picking a path – and even then, unforeseen roadblocks could further alter your decisions.
Ask a close relative with managerial experience about a tough call they had to make. Did they weight their options beforehand? Why did they choose the option they did? Are they satisfied, or would they go back and change it if they could?
How is communication a factor in organizational ethics? Communication figures in organizational ethics in two ways (Cheney et al., 2004). First, many of the ethical issues in organizations revolve around communication. For example, organizations have to decide when to tell employees of impending layoffs, they develop advertising campaigns that communicate the identity of their corporation and its products to consumers, and they must decide how to communicate information regarding their profits and losses to shareholders and Wall Street. Second, the ways in which an organization defines, communicates about, and responds to ethical and unethical behavior shape how individuals within the organization behave. If corporate policy and organizational leaders are vague on the issue of ethics, or worse yet, fail to address it, employees may believe that ethics are not a central concern of the organization and may behave accordingly. For example, in 2020, the New York Times published an article about the ethical decisions being made over who would get COVID-19 treatment if hospitals were overwhelmed with patients. Hospitals are organizations, but they don't operate in a vacuum. They know that the ethical decisions they make impact their employees and their public image (Teresi et al., 2019). The choices made by hospitals and public health officials in the states varied widely. Alabama put "persons with severe mental retardation" low on the list for treatment as well as those with AIDS. However, Alabama officials said they have replaced the plan with a different set of guidelines. Louisiana excluded people with severe dementia, and Maryland gave "lowest priority" to people over 85 years old. As hospitals grappled with these state ethical guidelines for treatment priority, they considered many issues, including the patient's age, pregnancy (Utah considers how far along the pregnancy is), dementia, and Alzheimer's (Baker & Fink, 2020).
The chapter on organizational communication helped me better understand a problem I encountered with Residential Life at my college. It wasn't about drinking or drugs or letting in strangers or any of the usual problems that students have with the dorm; it was about my resident assistant (RA), who now is my boyfriend.
Just to clarify, there were no rules stated that I could not date my RA, and he was never told he couldn't date his residents. Plus, there is actual love involved, not just random friends-with-benefits hookups, and we really feel as though we have met the right person. But Residential Life has a huge problem with our relationship, and they called us into a meeting. We both felt as though it was a violation of our privacy. We had the meeting, he quit his job, and we are still dating, 10 months strong!
Now, though, when I look at the relationship through the eyes of the school, I can see their problems with it. What would have happened if an employee of the college got me pregnant? Also, he lived in my hall, and his duty was to keep us in line, but there was huge preferential treatment going on. I mean, would my boyfriend really write me up for anything? So now I see that they had a point. But I don't understand why nothing was ever said about this practice being against the rules.
Improving Your Organizational Communication Skills
11.6 Identify four steps involved in a strategic approach to conflict management.
Much of the time, if not most, people are only willing to engage in conflict when they are angry or emotional. How often have you been involved with, or observed others engaging in, highly emotional conflict at work? As you probably have noted, this style of conflict engagement typically doesn't resolve anything and may cause long-lasting damage to one's relationships with others.
A better way to manage conflict with coworkers is to use a strategic approach to conflict management. People who use a strategic approach prepare for their conflicts and engage in strategy control (Canary & Lakey, 2012). When behaving strategically, one assesses the available information and options, which increases one's understanding of the conflict and the other party. In turn, these behaviors help people choose conflict behaviors that are responsive to the partner's as well as their own needs and increase the possibility for cooperation, collaboration, and compromise.
When using a strategic approach, before you even initiate a discussion over an issue in conflict, you should know what you want to occur as a result of the interaction. If you wish to confront your coworker about not doing his fair share of a joint project, you should first decide what your goal is. Do you want your colleague to apologize? To stay late until the report is finished? To complete the project by himself? To take the lead on the next joint project? Or do you desire some combination of these outcomes? You will be far more successful and satisfied with your conflict interactions if you go into them knowing what you want.
Second, decide if the issue is worth confronting —or worth confronting now. You may know what you want, but do you have a reasonable chance of accomplishing your goals? That is, how likely is your coworker to apologize or to successfully take the lead on your next joint project? If the answer truly is "highly unlikely," you may choose not to engage in the conflict or to seek other solutions. For example, you might decide to ask your supervisor to assign someone else to work with you. Alternatively, you may decide you do want to have the conversation, but perhaps not right now, because both of you are hungry and tired.
If you decide that the conflict is worth confronting, you next want to try to understand the other party's goals, that is, what they want. What, for example, do you think your coworker's goal is? Does he want to receive credit for the work without having to do it? Does he want assistance with parts of the project he doesn't feel competent to complete? Is he busy with other projects and wants more time to finish the project? Depending on your understanding of his goals and interests, you will likely suggest different solutions. Please remember, however, the tendency for each of us to attribute negative motivations to others' behavior. If you are upset, you will be particularly likely to believe your colleague's goal is to avoid work but receive the rewards of it. Recognize that your attributions may be incorrect and that you probably will need to talk with your coworker to determine what his motivations really are.
You have one more step to complete before you are ready to talk with your colleague; you need to plan the interaction. More specifically, you should think about when and where the conversation should take place and what tactics you believe will be most effective. Typically, you will want to choose a time when neither you nor your coworker is angry, rushed, or stressed. In addition, you should probably have the conversation in private. If others are around, one or both of you may behave more competitively or avoid the interaction entirely because you are embarrassed to be observed by others. Finally, you should think through how you will explain your dissatisfaction with the current state of affairs neutrally and how you will frame your suggested solutions. Once you have done all of this, you are ready to talk with your colleague and discuss calmly what the two of you can do to reduce your feeling that you alone are working on the project. What are your options if you feel that another employee or a supervisor has committed an extremely serious infraction against you, perhaps betraying a serious confidence and spreading harmful misinformation about you? Perhaps attempts to discuss the issue have only resulted in worsening the relationship.
Communication scholars have recently discussed the important role of compassion and forgiveness in the workplace. For example, Sarah Tracy and colleagues (2017) describe the need for compassionate communication strategies in problematic work situations -supportive listening, positive language, and optimistic framing. Scholars Paul and Putnam (2017) identify four potential workplace forgiveness responses, acknowledging that a particular response may
vary depending on the closeness of the personal relationship, the task involved, and one's own individual communication style: (1) moving on, a passive approach that is primarily task focused; (2) not taking it personally, associated with task focus and closer relationships; (3) letting go, reflecting a higher degree of collaboration, intertwining relationships and task; and (4) conciliatory forgiving, less concern with task and reflective of close relationships and working through the conflict. Paul and Putnam also emphasize that while forgiveness is seen as an individual action, the organizational values and norms can play a role and influence whether (and how) any act of forgiveness may be enacted in the workplace context.
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The Importance of Rhetoric
12.1 Describe some of the key issues in rhetorical communication.
The rhetorical tradition lies at the heart of communication studies. Since the days of Aristotle in ancient Greece, rhetoric has been considered the art of persuasion. Among the many ways that communication operates, the Greeks felt that the ability to influence how others view the world on various issues was paramount. Rhetoric's practice is contingent on culture, political arrangements, and social contexts and conventions. For example, how might courtroom rhetoric differ among people who believe in magic, witches, and the presumption of guilt from a courtroom rhetoric among people who believe in DNA, forensic science, and the presumption of innocence? Or in a political system with a dictator versus one with elected officials? We'll look at the changing notions of rhetoric as cultures and societies have differed. First, let's look at how rhetoric functions in our society.
What Is Rhetoric? A Broader View
12.2 Identify cultural and social influences on the development of rhetoric.
When you think of rhetoric, you may think about overblown statements, exaggerations, or even outright lies and misstatements —as in "Oh, that's just a bunch of political rhetoric." Unfortunately, this dismissive view of rhetoric is all too common today. However, as we saw in the preceding section, rhetoric has a rich history, and it serves important functions in a democratic society. As you saw in the opening example about debates regarding Black Lives Matter, rhetoric in its truest sense refers to communication that is used to influence others. Thus, rhetoricians would view the president's communication following September 11, 2001, not as simply an attempt to provide information but also as an attempt to guide U.S. Americans to view this topic in a way that suits his particular goals. In both the historical and the contemporary sense, rhetoric focuses primarily on public communication or messages designed to influence large audiences.
More than 50 years ago, communication professor Douglas Ehninger suggested that throughout history people have had different ideas of what rhetoric is and the purposes it serves (1967). Ehninger's thinking sparked interest in connecting rhetoric to the cultural, social, and historical forces that exist in any particular time and in exploring how these forces shape rhetoric. Therefore, scholars began to research the ways that rhetoric serves social needs in societies around the world. For example, they looked at how the uses of rhetoric in a religious state may differ from those in a secular one. In addition, their research showed that the methods and reasons that people speak out in public depend on how such communication is received.
Although Ehninger focused on the European tradition, his argument stirred interest in understanding how non-Western cultures developed their own rhetorical traditions (Lucaites et al.,1999).
The European rhetorical tradition is only one of many in the world, and public communication functions in different ways in other places. It can, however, be difficult to research and study rhetoric historically or globally because the word rhetoric is not used in all cultures to describe that which is called "rhetoric" in the European tradition. The term comes to the English language from the Greek word rhetorike. However, it is important to note that the concept of "rhetoric" can likewise exist in non-Greek cultures whether or not a synonym for the specific word exists in other languages. A rhetor is a person or institution that addresses the public. Public address can happen without reference to the public speech forums of Greek democracy and Roman republicanism. George Kennedy, a scholar of the ancient world, focuses less on the word and more on the concept itself: "Rhetoric is apparently a form of energy that drives and is imparted to communication. … All communication carries some rhetorical energy" (1998, p. 215). In this sense, rhetoric is not a cultural phenomenon unique to the West, but it is a facet of communication across cultures; it is the motive for communicating.
Culturally, the social position of the rhetor often determines their right to speak or to access civic speaking spaces. In some cultures, it is important that the rhetor is an elder or that he be male or come from a high-status family. In others, everyone is able to speak. These cultural differences influence who has the ability to speak and who needs to study rhetoric to be the most capable communicators.
To understand how these social positions differ across cultures, it is important to seek out the structures of different cultures and societies. In some cultures, people rise to leadership positions by being democratically elected, whereas in other cultures leaders gain and hold onto power through financial prowess, political intrigue, or military force. Religious leaders sometimes hold the most powerful positions. Some cultures are led by a group instead of a single leader. Relationships to certain families, credentials from certain schools, or even one's physical attractiveness can lead to empowerment (or disempowerment). Yet how one's rhetoric is received is dependent on one's social position.
Some rhetorical critics have strategically located rhetoric in spaces traditionally disassociated from civic forums. For example, the kitchen, and kitchen table talk specifically, has been a domestic site of transformative dialogue for many women. This was especially so during America's twentieth-century civil activist history. Today, many Black feminist scholars feature the kitchen table as a metaphor for a place where rhetoric is in action. Even if it is not a location for
legislation, women who have been excluded from public domains of political action have debated political issues and spread word about community at their hearths. In this way, rhetorical criticism can analyze classical modes of rhetoric by changing where we think rhetoric takes place.
As you think about the role of rhetoric around the world, consider how decisions are made in different societies. You might also contemplate how our own culture is changing as we take part in public debates over such far-reaching topics as same-sex marriage, immigration reform, retirement and pension plans, and more.
The Rhetor: Rhetoric's Point of Origin
12.3 Identify and define the three artistic proofs of ethos, pathos, and logos.
It is conventional to think about a rhetor as a specific public speaker; for example, when the president speaks to the nation, the president is a rhetor. As notions of rhetoric have expanded over time, however, corporations, organizations, and governments have also come to be thought of as rhetors. Thus, a rhetor is the originator of a communication message, not necessarily the person delivering it.
Like other areas of communication studies, the study of rhetoric acknowledges the relationship between individual forces and societal forces. In this segment of the chapter, we look at the individual forces that make for more or less effective rhetors. These forces include the rhetor's artistic proofs, position in society, and relationship to the audience.
The Individual, Rhetoric, and Society
12.4 Explain four functions of rhetoric: reaffirming cultural values, increasing democratic participation, securing justice, and promoting social change.
Because rhetoric always arises within a specific social context, its functions can vary considerably. The distinct cultural forces that influence a particular society should be considered when studying its rhetoric. In the United States today, rhetoric serves four important democratic functions that form the basis of how we come to decisions and work together collectively. We will look at these four functions next.
Ethics and Rhetoric
12.5 Understand the ethical issues facing rhetors and audience members.
Concerns about ethics and rhetoric have been a mainstay in rhetorical studies since the origins of rhetoric. From ancient Greeks to contemporary thinkers, rhetoricians have wrestled with the best ways to be ethical in using and consuming rhetorical messages. There have been many debates over what is ethical and unethical in attempting to persuade others to view the world as the rhetor does. Although most would agree that the use of outright deception or lying would be unacceptable, there is no set list of rules that are universally agreed on to guide your ethical choices. In building a rhetorical case advocating a particular way of viewing a topic-for example, death penalty, abortion, financial reform —be aware of the choices that the rhetor is making. Is the best available evidence being used? Is the message adapted to the audience?
During the 2016 election, Melania Trump faced backlash after giving a speech at the Republican National Convention that mirrored a speech Michelle Obama gave in 2008. Watch the video, and then answer the questions that follow.
It is important to be aware of the language that is used. Obviously, pejorative terms for members of various cultural groups should be avoided because it is unethical to dismiss entire groups of people with negative terms. Sometimes rhetors demean or disparage particular social groups, either overtly or subtly. When someone engages in this communication behavior, much of the audience may turn against the rhetor. For example, when Mayor Barry Presgraves of Luray, Virginia, referred to Kamala Harris with a racist and sexist term, he felt the need to apologize: "Passing off demeaning and worn-out racial stereotypes as humor isn't funny. I now fully understand how hurtful it is. I can and will do better, and we can all do better. We must. From the bottom of my heart I am sorry and humbly ask for your forgiveness and your grace" (qtd. in VanHoose, 2020).
Aside from such obvious choices, you should also consider your use of what rhetorician Richard Weaver described as "god terms" and "devil terms" (1985). These terms too easily lead (or mislead) people without critical reflection. God terms are words such as freedom, equality, and so on. Devil terms are similar but negative, such as communist, nazi, and so on. God terms and devil terms must be used carefully because they can serve more as propaganda than rhetoric, and when we hear those terms, we should carefully consider what the rhetor is trying to persuade us to think or do.
Rhetorical ethics are also focused on the ends or goals of the rhetorical messages. For example, if someone is trying to convince people that we should undertake the genocide of a
particular cultural group, does it matter if they do not lie or fabricate any evidence in making the argument? So, ethics in rhetoric include a consideration of the goals of the rhetoric. What do these rhetorical messages encourage us to do or to think?
Social media present new challenges to the need to think through how we attempt to persuade others to view the world as we do (and vice versa). The Internet not only reproduces and reflects larger social issues, but it can also shape the ways that the rhetorical discussions take place (Nakamura & Chow-White, 2012). You may have encountered many problematic comments online. This phenomenon is interesting in that it creates a space for people to try to align others to their worldviews. Because of the rhetorical power of social media, there has been much pressure put on Facebook, Iwitter, and other platforms to regulate what happens there. In response, Twitter has permanently banned white supremacist and former Ku Klux Klan member David Duke (Effron, 2020), and Twitter has also taken down thousands of accounts associated with Anon, a group that promotes conspiracy theories, with one of their central beliefs that "Mr. Trump ran for office to save Americans from a so-called deep state filled with child-abusing, devil-worshipping bureaucrats" (Conger, 2020). Chapter 14 explores social media in more detail, but the rhetorical power of these platforms can shape how people view the world whether those views are true in Plato's sense or not.
Guidelines to Become an Ethical Receiver
Using what you know about rhetoric, then, what can you do to become an ethical receiver of rhetorical communication? Here are some guidelines:
• Be willing to listen to a range of perspectives on a particular topic. Although you may not initially agree with a particular rhetor, you should consider their perspective (Makau, 1997), including why you do or do not agree.
• Be willing to speak out if you know that a rhetor is giving misinformation or deceiving an audience.
• Don't be silenced by information overload. If a speaker gives too much information, focus on the main points and be critical of this kind of presentation.
• Listen critically to the rhetor; don't accept the arguments presented at face value.
• Be willing to speak out publicly if a rhetor communicates in a way that dehumanizes or demeans others (Johannesen, 1997).
• Listen to and fairly assess what you hear, which may require that you postpone judgment until you hear the entire message.
• Be willing to change your mind as more evidence becomes available.
Using Your Rhetorical Skills: Speaking in Public
12.6 Identify the basic steps in preparing a speech.
Throughout this chapter, we have discussed rhetoric primarily from the viewpoint of the receiver or critic. But we can also be rhetors by writing for an audience, by using other media such as video to reach audiences, and by practicing the art of public speaking. Becoming an effective rhetor is important because speaking in public is a cornerstone of our participatory democracy in the United States. Citizens need to become adept public speakers so that they can advocate for what they think is best (Gayle, 2004). Learning to speak up for your interests can also improve your satisfaction from participating in student organizations, as well as in local organizations such as a city council or a volunteer group. Public speaking skills are also important for success in most jobs. Increasingly, businesses want employees who can speak well in meetings and in public settings outside the organization (Osterman, 2005).
In the following sections, we introduce the basic elements of speech preparation. We 1l look at the range of communication events in which people may be called to speak, the importance of understanding audiences, and the basics of constructing, organizing, and delivering a speech. These elements supply the foundations for effective public speaking.
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The Importance of Interactive and Social Media
14.1 Identify three reasons for learning about interactive media.
Interactive media are a constant reality in our lives and affect our daily activities in multiple ways. This pervasiveness provides the first and primary reason for learning more about this topic. A second reason is that understanding interactive media and having good media skills provide opportunities for self-expression and can help you be more successful personally. And a third reason is that understanding and using social media effectively in your professional life can help ensure career success.
First, we say that interactive media are pervasive because most of us interact with these communication technologies almost constantly and increasingly access them on mobile devices (Auxier et al., 2019). Recently, people have to rely on interactive media more than ever; because of remote work/learning/health environments, there has been a shift in thinking of interactive media as entertainment for pleasure to thinking of it as something we need in our daily lives for school and professional purposes (Vogels et al., 2020). You probably know that social media use has grown dramatically over your lifetime. In 2005, just 5 percent of U.S. Americans used social media, compared to today when 75 percent of all adults and almost 90 percent of young people (ages 18-29) use social media. Although communication technologies are a huge boon for many people around the globe, they present challenges to communication researchers (and textbook authors) in trying to understand and study the implications of these interactive media in our daily lives. Communication technologies come and go at a rapid rate. By the time researchers design a study, the particular technology may have lost prominence, and the study results can then seem irrelevant. In addition, it's difficult to predict which technologies will be important in the future or how we will use current ones differently.
That said, we have to start somewhere to describe the role of interactive media in our everyday lives, and most experts agree that we currently use communication technologies primarily for (1) connecting with others in various ways, through social networks, media sharing, social blogging, and discussion/community blogging and (2) consuming content (verbal and visual). These interactive media offer many ways to stay connected and, as Charee discovered, present many communication choices. Our friends can know immediately what movies we're streaming and what brand of sunscreen we've purchased as well as the restaurant where we're eating. Digital apps help us connect with new friends who share our interests (e.g., Meetup, Meet My Dog, Nextdoor) and potential sexual or romantic partners (e.g., Grindr, Tinder, Scruff, Bumble, OkCupid). Perhaps more importantly, social media can provide a quick way to notify friends and loved ones that we're safe during natural or human caused disasters (e.g., Facebook's Safety Check).
Of course, different social media platforms have different audiences that require different approaches. What you post on LinkedIn, for example, differs from what you post on Instagram or TikTok. We are constantly making choices about which information we want to share with which friends/acquaintances/colleagues and in which medium. Throughout this chapter, we will examine how this pervasive connectivity can affect our communication choices as well as our sense of identity, personal privacy, and romantic, work, and acquaintance relationships.
Connecting with others can provide opportunities for civic engagement and activism. Interacting on social media (eg., Twitter) offers opportunities for closer access to political leaders and celebrities. Some journalists say this direct access has upset the traditional role of journalists. But social media also presents opportunities for civic engagement and political activism. For example, one analysis found that the #MeToo hashtag had been used more than 19 million times on Twitter from October 15, 2017 (when actress Alyssa Milano tweeted, urging victims of sexual harassment to reply "me too"), through September 30, 2018 (Auxier et al., 2019). And the #BlackLivesMatter campaign started with one tweet after the murder of Trayvon Martin and Michael Brown in 2012, gathered momentum over the years, and led to the 2020 massive protests after the killing of George Floyd.
Activism that takes less effort, or "slacktivism," involves supporting a cause merely by connecting with others on social media (e.g., by changing a profile image, retweeting an opinion, or using a trending hashtag). It turns out that "slacktivism" or "clicktivism" (a less negative term) is actually more effective than we might assume. By spreading little-known ideas and publicizing non-mainstream notions, these actions collectively can provide momentum to fledgling social and political movements (Fisher, 2020). Even seemingly insignificant daily social media activities can provide social solidarity and be a gateway to political participation (Stewart & Schultze, 2019; Yamamoto et al., 2019).
In addition to organizing and promoting social causes, interactive media have been used successfully to raise money through crowdfunding to support individuals, charities, or start-up companies. People can contribute to crowdfunding requests with no expectation of repayment, or companies can offer shares of the business to contributors. Kickstarter, the most popular crowdfunding site, has raised over $5 billion with more than 182,000 projects funded since its inception in 2009. Indiegogo and Causes are popular for nonprofit fundraising, and GoFundMe is used to raise money for personal causes (soliciting money, for example, for healthcare costs or travel). Kiva enables people from developing countries who cannot afford bank loans to crowdfund temporary loans (Nguyen, 2020).
Another important interactive media activity is searching for information/consuming content (visual and verbal). Some activities may be less interactive (e.g., reading news reports; getting directions; reading reviews of restaurants, movies, or home repair professionals; obtaining stock quotes or weather reports; watching funny cat videos), but others are quite interactive, like commenting on political/news/opinion blogs, posting your own opinions and reviews, or sharing a funny TikTok video to a friend along with your comments (see Communication in Society: The Role of Social Media in a National Health Crisis).
Communication in Society
The Role of Social Media in a National Health Crisis
In a national health crisis, some people panic, and some remain calm. Why is there this vanation, and what types of official messages are most effective in helping citizens deal with such a crisis? Can you relate this information to national health issues today? Communication scholars Glowacki and Taylor (2020) investigated this topic by examining 400 social media responses (Facebook posts and Tweets) to three different media sources during the three-month crisis when the deadly Ebola virus entered the United States in 2014. The three sources represented a range of political/cultural positions: (1) the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), viewed as a scientific and relatively neutral source; (2) the White House (WH), with a progressive Democratic President Obama; and (3) Alex Jones's show Infowars, a politically far-right, self-proclaimed conspiracy theorist known for stoking fear and concern from followers.
As expected, the messages from the CDC were focused on explanations of the virus and the health situation, the WH's messages on calming fears. However, these attempts at informing and calming citizens were often met with social media responses of criticism, distrust, and scepticism (e.g., the CDC was incompetent, hadn't provided best practices for handling the virus, and so on).
Not surprisingly, messages on Infowars' Facebook page stoked fear and anxiety. For example, some messages accused the U.S. government of "draconian powers" and detaining Americans Other messages accused the CDC of a "hidden" past, saying that the CDC knew Ebola had mutated into an airborne virus much earlier in 1989. Not surprisingly, social media responses to these messages centered on distrust of the government rather than concerns over Ebola (e.g., accusing the government of intentionally bringing Ebola into the United States and withholding treatment).
The CDC continued to send out facts and advice about the virus, quickly countering Infowars' false information; responses of accusations and blame slowly turned to scepticism and frustration, and finally the tide seemed to turn and responses to the CDC messages were more
thankful and even asking for guidance. Responses to Infowars' fearmongering messages became sceptical, with some labeling the messages as "scare tactics."
Glowacki and Taylor draw several conclusions: (1) When faced with a potential health crisis, citizens respond to fear with "hyperbolic" (exaggerated) rhetoric: scepticism and blame, apprehension, and/or an unwillingness to comply with the prescribed guidelines (2) This hyperbolic rhetoric seems to feed off of established patterns but "has a shelf life, lacks the endurance to withstand prolonged discussion." Suggestions for health officials: Monitor social media posts to get a sense of what the public perceives as concerning. Use specific rather than vague language when communicating about health recommendations and practices. The CDC's vague language at the beginning of the crisis seemed to lead to panic, mistrust, and scepticism.
SOURCE: Glowacki, E. M., & Taylor, M. A. (2020). Health hyperbolism: A study in health crisis rhetoric. Qualitative Health Research, 30(12), 1953-1964.
Searching for information presents a choice: When do you do a Google search, post a question on Quora (crowdsourcing), or ask friends on Instagram? One group of researchers found that people carefully choose their platform based on the nature of their question and the audience they're interested in. People used Facebook to ask questions when they wanted opinions from their friends, were seeking very specific information, or were asking friends to supplement information from a search engine. They tended to use Twitter when they needed a broader audience or were seeking information they thought inappropriate (too sensitive or too controversial) for other social media friends. They used search engines when they didn't think their Facebook friends would have the answer or the topic was too sensitive for social media (Oeldorf-Hirsch et al., 2014). How do you choose?
Closely related to crowdfunding, discussed earlier, is crowdsourcing. While crowdfunding seeks to obtain money, crowdsourcing is a way of getting information or opinions from a large group of people through interactive media. Originally, crowdsourcing was used like a Google search for general information; it is now increasingly monetized, used by businesses or marketing firms to solicit new business or raise capital. Individuals who respond to the crowdsourcing questions may be paid employees or freelancers hired to promote organizations/businesses, often by including links (to those businesses/organizations) in their answers.
A second reason for learning more about interactive media is that developing good digital skills can help in your personal life, for example, by helping overcome the challenges of problematic interactive media use Busch & McCarthy, 2020; Tanega & Downs, 2020). As we'll discuss in more detail later in the chapter, knowing how to use social media effectively can lead to better self-esteem (Firth et al., 2019), better mental health, and emotional well-being (Faelens et al.,
2021). Understanding the challenges of virtual relationships (romantic and friendships) can lead to safer interpersonal relationships and higher relational satisfaction (Verduyn et al., 2021).
Finally, you may not choose a career in social media (e.g., social influencer, digital marketer), but knowing how to use social media effectively to find and secure a job or using social media and other communication technologies in your chosen career will enhance your chances of professional success. For example, recent research shows a strong relationship between professional success and active use of social media such as LinkedIn. It appears that users of these platforms report more timely access to resources and referrals to career opportunities than nonusers do. (LinkedIn explicitly promises to connect its members with professionals from all over the world.) These professional informational benefits are positively related to career satisfaction, which is also linked to overall life satisfaction (Utz & Breuer, 2019).
Understanding the role that interactive media can play in employer employee relationships and understanding organizational rules and practices involving interactive media, including surveillance, privacy concerns, and "netiquette," will serve you well. You have probably read news reports about employees who lost their jobs or were penalized as a result of not understanding the informal or formal rules about media behavior in the workplace (Doyle, 2020). Perhaps you wonder when employers can (and cannot) terminate employees for social media practices. We will discuss this question later in the chapter as well as various challenges and guidelines for effective interactive media use in work contexts (Miller, 2018).
What Are Interactive Media?
14.2 Define interactive media.
We define interactive media as a collection of mediated communication technologies that are digital and converging and tend to be mobile, all accessed on a variety of devices, from desktop and laptop computers, smartphones, tablets, and other mobile devices. Let's unpack this definition a little further and distinguish interactive media from mass media — the topic covered in Chapter 13. In contrast to in-person communication, both mass media and interactive media are mediated forms of communication, meaning that the messages are carried through an intervening system of digital electronic storage before being transmitted between two or more people.
In contrast to mass media, in which messages are generally one-to-many, interactive media messages converge, meaning that they can be sent one to one, one to many, or many to many. Also in contrast to mass media, they are interactive, meaning that communication goes both ways and permits individuals to connect and interact with others. So what are examples of
interactive media? There are many, but the easiest description is: Interactive media include social media, online games (e.g., massively multiplayer role-playing online games (MMORPGs)], messaging apps, remote learning platforms, virtual reality, and email.
Social media is "a group of Internet-based, web applications that allow the creation and exchange of user-generated content" (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010, p.61). For our purposes, social media include social networking sites (SNS), like Facebook, Twitter, and LinkedIn; media sharing networks, like Instagram, Pinterest, and YouTube; social blogging networks, like Tumblr; discussions, like Reddit and Quora; and review networks, like Yelp and TripAdvisor. These categories are not set in stone. Twitter, for example, is an SNS but is also categorized as a microblog. Snapchat is a messaging app but functions like a social media platform. Remember, in addition to social media, interactive media also include mobile messaging and email.
One of the characteristics of interactive media is new versions are always emerging. It is a dynamic form of communication, and increasingly mobile. Distinctions between mass and interactive media are becoming more and more blurred. For example, some mass media forms like television reality shows viewed on mobile devices incorporate audience reaction and participation. And some media, like podcasts, may not allow interaction, functioning in a way that is similar to traditional mass media. For the purposes of this chapter, we focus on the interactive elements of media, where the "real give and take of social life" in cyberspace occurs (Walther & Parks, 2002, p. 3).
How do this mobility and this constant connection with others and information sources through interactive media affect our communication choices and uses? Before addressing this question, we need to understand how various communication technologies differ from each other and from in-person communication —the topic we turn to next.
How Does Interactive Media Use Affect Our Communication Choices?
14.3 Describe the dimensions of interactive media and how these dimensions help us understand and choose among various media.
Because interactive media are rapidly changing forms of communication, it is difficult to arrive at definitive conclusions about their exact role in everyday life. Researching these forms of communication can be like trying to hit a moving target. Still, with a basic understanding of what interactive media are and some of the ways they can differ, we can get some sense of their increasingly important role.
To begin, let's consider Charee's constant connectivity and her reaction to the various interactive media. Why do online classes and remote work frustrate her to some degree? Why is she happy to consult her cooking video and order her groceries online? Like Charee, perhaps you find yourself happy to engage with certain interactive media and not others. Or perhaps you have had an issue to discuss with a friend or acquaintance and were unsure what the most effective mode of communication would be. If so, you had good reason to feel unsure. Interactive media differ in important ways, and these differences can affect your response, the outcome of your interaction, and even your sense of wellbeing and happiness. One way to understand these reactions and choices is to examine the characteristics of various media and how they vary along two dimensions.
Interactive Media and the Individual
14.4 Describe issues that can arise in identity and relationship development when using interactive media.
Clearly, interactive media use presents us with a range of choices, and those choices can have a powerful impact on communication between individuals in terms of identity, and in turn, personal relationships. Let's examine the way this works.
The Individual, Interactive Media, and Society
14.5 Understand the role of power and privilege in interactive media use.
All media activities —whether for fun, socializing, or information seeking — are enacted by humans within a social context and the larger society. These activities both reflect and influence larger societal norms. For example, some of the same social hierarchies that exist in the larger society also exist in the realm of interactive media. When we sort people out by various identities (for example, gender, ethnicity, or race), we find differences not only in how many of them use communication technologies, but also in how they are perceived to use these media. In this section, we'll first look at how various identities influence technology use and then examine some of the inequalities in communication technologies use.
Ethics and Interactive Media
14.6 Identify four ethical challenges involving interactive media use.
One message we hope you take from this chapter is that interactive media are not good or bad in themselves, nor better or worse than offline communication. They are simply different. However, these differences can allow for irresponsible, thoughtless, or even unethical communication. How can you become an ethical user of social media?
There are at least four areas of ethical consideration: (1) presentation of identity online, (2) privacy issues, (3) posting ethical messages, and (4) building online relationships.
Improving Your Mediated Communication Skills
14.7 Discuss ways to improve your own mediated communication skills.
What should you take from this chapter that can help you be a better communicator? First, you can strive to communicate more effectively in educational, personal, and professional contexts. Just as we have norms of courtesy for traditional, in-person communication, we also have etiquette for virtual communication.
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The Importance of Mass Media
13.1 Identify the issues facing mass media.
Media hold an important place in our society. As an indication of their importance to you, consider these questions. If you met someone who did not watch television shows, see or rent movies, or listen to the radio, would you be surprised? What if the same person had never heard of Lady Gaga, Stephen Colbert, Oprah Winfrey, LeBron James, or J. Lo? Would knowing this change your interaction with that person? What topics could you and couldn't you discuss? If you concluded that many topics would be off-limits, you can see that media messages serve important social functions. For example, they help people bond with others who like or dislike the same shows, movies, advertisements, singers, or actors. Media messages and images also help shape how people view the world and what they understand —and perhaps misunderstand —about events around the globe. Because people are so deeply immersed in this media environment, however, they rarely think about their participation in it. Nevertheless, it is indeed an interaction because individuals participate in the communication process by selecting certain programs and agreeing or disagreeing with what they hear or see.
Why are media studies important? To begin with, U.S. Americans watch an enormous amount of television, although the exact number of hours is difficult to pin down. In 2016, Nielsen reported that U.S. adults spent a little over 32 hours per week watching television, followed by over 15 hours per week on their smartphones. When combining television, radio, PCs, TV-connected devices (e.g., DVDs, game consoles), tablets, and smartphones, adults spend about 74.5 hours per week using these various media (Nielsen, 2017b).
People turn to communication media for both information and entertainment. For example, most U.S. Americans turned to television to learn the results of the 2016 presidential elections. Eighty-four percent turned to television, while 48 percent used online platforms and a smaller number, 21 percent, turned to social media, such as Facebook and Twitter. The numbers add up to more than 100 percent because many people used more than one media. Thirty-seven percent used both television and the Internet to learn about the election results (Anderson, 2016). Although more people are turning to the Internet, it is important to recognize that television remains the primary information source. Of course, not all people turn to television. People at work may not have access to television but can check frequently for news on the Internet while working at their computers. People traveling by car rely on radio for their information.
Media scholars today recognize that they work during an era of rapid media change and development. For example, communication scholars Jennings Bryant and Dorina Miron (2004) identified six kinds of changes that are currently affecting and being affected by mass communication:
1. new form, content, and substance in mass communication;
2. new kinds of interactive media, such as the Internet;
3. new media ownership patterns in a global economy;
4. new viewing patterns and habits of audiences;
5. new patterns in family life; and
6. new patterns of interactive media use by youth.
Because of the rapid pace of these changes, measuring and studying their influence can be a challenge.
We live in an age when media consumers have more options than ever. In the United States, the average household in 2019 fell to 179.5 channels, which continues a trend of decreasing channels (Barr, 2019). Despite having so many channels, the average U.S. household only watched 12.7 channels (Mandese, 2020). So more choices do not necessarily mean that consumers are becoming more fragmented in their viewing.
Nielsen also recognizes that we are becoming increasingly diverse demographically as well as in the ways we are consuming media. According to another Nielsen report, "Changes in the population are creating a younger, more diverse, more tech-savvy consumer base. But connecting with them has become more complicated due to an exploding number of viewing options" (Nielsen, 2014, May 12). The rise of the Internet and the many choices that we now have led some to discuss the "end" of mass media, with some going so far as to claim, "The mass-media era now looks like a relatively brief and anomalous period that is coming to an end" ("Coming full circle," 2011). Some claim that the economic model for mass media is no longer viable and that spells the end of mass media (Greenslade, 2016), but others do not agree.
In contrast, others are seeing the Internet as another way for consumers to continue to consume even more television programming in many more places at many more times than ever before. As the Internet incorporates television programming, Shira Ovide, a New York Times technology writer, notes: "As home entertainment is being dragged into the digital world, I'm struck by how many holdovers have stuck around" (2020). She notes that much
programming remains locked into 30- and 60-minute episodes, and she asks, "Sure, the internet changed everything. But also, has it?" and ultimately concludes that "the new watching 'TV' still feels a lot like watching TV" (Ovide, 2020). Services like Hulu and Amazon Prime are becoming popular as ways that more people can watch television programming. The Internet is an important way that traditional broadcasting corporations are reaching wider audiences.Instead of killing the traditional broadcasting corporations, the Internet is seen by some as an increasingly important medium for traditional broadcasters to reach more audiences.
We see this influence, for example, when we look at Netflix, which many people view as a provider of movies. While it is widely known that "Netflix is secretive about viewing figures," it is estimated that they spent an estimated $13 billion on original content in 2018. Yet, "80% of Netflix streams are for licensed content that first aired elsewhere, with 42% of viewers never viewing original content"' (Iqbal, 2020). Although some of this television programming is created by Netflix (e.g., The Baby-sitters Club, Feel Good, Girl/Har), these shows are all destined for a mass audience who can watch them whenever they wish, wherever they wish. Netflix is also internationalizing U.S. television offerings by adding TV "series from Argentina, Britain, Canada, Japan, Mexico, South Korea, Spain and Turkey to its American offerings" (Hale, 2017).
The coming years will reveal what happens to mass media. Will audiences become further fragmented as more choices become available across a range of platforms? Or will media consumption be driven by popularity among audiences so that television programming continues to draw mass audiences – although not all people are watching at the same time or on the same screens? Or will different media take different paths with the Internet?
What Are Mass Media?
13.2 Identify the main forms of mass media.
Mediated communication refers to communication that is transmitted through a channel, such as television, film, radio, and print. We often refer to these channels of communication more simply as media.
The word media is the plural form of medium. Television is one communication medium; others include film, radio, magazines, advertisements, and newspapers. When you pick up the telephone to speak to someone, you are using yet another communication medium. When you write a letter, your communication is mediated by the form of letter writing. Even the voice and the body can be considered media of communication.
For all the complexity and variety of media studies, its focus typically falls on mass media, or mediated communication intended for a large audience. Mass-mediated messages are usually produced and distributed by large organizations or industries in the business of mass communication. Mass media businesses are also known as culture industries because they produce television shows, made-for-television movies, video games, and other cultural products as an industry. The creation of these cultural products is not driven by individual artists, but by large groups of workers in for-profit and some nonprofit) organizations.
The study of media is often a moving target because changes in media continually occur. Part of understanding the influence of media on our everyday lives entails understanding the changes that have occurred and what media were available in other time periods. Historically, communication has been framed by the media available during a given time. Let's now look at some of these industries and the media texts they produce.
One of the first media addressing a large public was newspapers. During the nineteenth century, many newspapers grew in distribution and readership as the cost of mass printing declined. As expansion westward continued in the United States, the newspaper played a critical role in community building. Newspapers flourished during this period in staggering numbers. For example, "Before the end of 1867, at least four newspapers had been published in Cheyenne, a town that still had a population well under 800, in the Wyoming Territory" (Boorstin, 1965, p. 131). These numbers are all the more impressive in view of today's decline in newspaper readership. As you can see, different eras embraced different communication media.
Today, when most people think of newspapers, they first think of large-circulation papers in large metropolitan areas, such as The New York Times, Washington Post, and Los Angeles Times. They might also think about smaller, local papers, including the Corvallis Gazette-Times, the Nome Nugget, and the Knoxville News Sentinel. Because large-circulation newspapers serve different needs from local papers, many readers subscribe to both. Other newspapers target specific demographic groups, such as immigrant communities, ethnic and racial communities, LGBTQIA+ communities, or retirees. Some are bilingual. Others are referred to as the "alternative" press. These alternative-press newspapers attempt to present perspectives and voices that may not be heard in the mainstream press. Examples of alternative papers include the Seattle Stranger, the San Francisco Bay Guardian, and New York City's Village Voice.
Another development that followed the lowered cost of mass printing was the development of the magazine. Magazines are produced weekly, monthly, bimonthly, or quarterly. Some, such as Time, Harper's, Reader's Digest, and Smithsonian, target broad, general audiences. Other magazines focus on more limited audiences-Ebony, Latina, Men's Health, and Woman's World, for example —and still others on specific topics, as shown by the titles Bon Appetit, Hot Rod, and Rhode Island Monthly. Like newspapers, magazines offer important forums for political discussions, but they also address distinct interests, such as crafts, hobbies, or travel. Like
newspapers, magazines have generally seen declining revenue in their print formats and have been moving increasingly to online digital formats. However, the Pew Research Center reports that "2013 and early 2014 brought a level of energy to the news industry not seen for a long time. Even as challenges of the past several years continue and new ones emerge, the activities this year have created a new sense of optimism-or perhaps hope —for the future of American journalism" (Mitchell, 2014). Newspapers and magazines are adjusting to the new digital world and feeling more optimistic about their future as new revenues are coming in to digital news platforms. Investors sense that digital formats will bring a positive return on their investments. Even after President Trump tweeted that The New York Times was "fake news" and its subscribers "dwindling," the newspaper reported that it added 276,000 digital and 25,000 print subscribers in the fourth quarter of 2016 (Pallotta, 2017). Since then, digital revenues have been increasing. One example is The Guardian: "Today, 55 percent of Guardian revenue comes from digital sources, a real feat of transition," while The New York Times is expected to get over 50 percent of its revenue from digital sources in 2020 (Benton, 2019). As magazines and newspapers move online, their digital presence will become increasingly important for readers as well as revenue streams.
Popular books are another medium addressed to a large audience. Sometimes called mass-market paperbacks, these books include romance novels, self-help books, and comic books as well as other genres that are produced in large numbers and distributed widely. e-books (electronic books) constitute another type of mass media. E-books are books read on a computer screen or e-readers (such as Amazon's Kindle) instead of a printed page. Sales of e-books have taken off, with 69 million sold in 2010 to over 335 million sold in 2019 (Watson, 2020). Although e-reader devices are becoming increasingly user-friendly, many readers still say they prefer the printed page.
Motion pictures, first shown commercially in the 1890s, flourished throughout the twentieth century. Although today people can make movies relatively cheaply with digital video, high-quality productions that draw large audiences cost millions of dollars to produce, distribute, and advertise. Therefore, movie studios with adequate resources dominate the motion picture industry. Although some documentary movies do become popular, such as Tiger King, I Am Not Your Negro, and On the Record, most best-selling movies are purely entertainment-oriented, such as Little Women, Deadpool, Parasite, and Ad Astra.Typically, large-budget films receive the widest distribution and the most publicity, but small-budget films can also reach audiences and sometimes offer alternative views of important social issues.
Like movies, radio technology emerged in the late nineteenth century. At first, it had important applications at sea, but in the 1920s stations sprang up all over the United States. As journalism professor Jane Chapman notes, "Radio's takeoff was swift, and public enthusiasm for it peaked during the 'golden age' of the 1930s and 1940s" (2005, p. 147). Radio programming included not only news and commentary but also quiz shows, dramas, and situation comedies.
With the rise of television, the Internet, and other competing media, radio broadcasting has become much more specialized, with radio stations serving specific audiences by broadcasting classical music, jazz, country music, news, sports, or other focused content. Audiences for these specialized programs are often targeted based on identities, such as age, socioeconomic class, race and ethnicity, or language. Today, radio is also broadcast over the Internet, via satellite, and through podcasts. And although commercial enterprises dominate radio in the United States, nonprofit radio, such as National Public Radio and Pacifica, also exists.
Popular music, another form of mass media, existed long before radio, and people listened to it live in public and private venues and, later, on gramophones and record players. Popular music now also plays on television and via other communication media, such as CDs, DVDs, and MP3 players. Streaming music services are increasingly how many people listen to music, as traditional music sales have declined. There are many streaming platforms for listening to music, with Spotify and Apple Music among the most popular. People choose how to stream music based on their own situations. If you have high-quality audio equipment, you may want to listen to music over Tidal rather than Pandora. Those people who like to listen to classical music might choose Idagio, but "Idagio doesn't have music that falls outside the realm of classical music, so you're out of luck if you like a little Springsteen with your Stravinsky" (Germain, 2020). The market for streaming music is growing as Amazon, SiriusXM, YouTube, and others are competing for this market. In spite of the pandemic, streaming music revenues are expected to continue to grow past $1 billion in the United States alone (Stassen, 2020).
Television is among the most familiar forms of communication media. Early in its development, in the mid-twentieth century, networks such as ABC, CBS, and NBC dominated because they were the only providers of content. The rise of cable television, with its multiple specialized channels, has taken significant market share away from the networks, yet they remain important and continue to draw large audiences. Since its inception, cable television has expanded to include pay channels such as HBO, Showtime, and Cinemax. In addition, satellite television is challenging cable television. Because television programming is expensive, the medium is dominated by commercial enterprises; however, the United States also has nonprofit television stations, many of which belong to the Public Broadcasting network or to the satellite network Deep Dish TV. In addition, cable TV stations are required to provide public, educational, and government-access channels.
With the developments of mass media online, many people have decided to cancel their cable subscriptions and opt for online viewing instead. At the beginning of the chapter, we saw that Charee "cut cable." The trend is very clear: "The number of pay-TV households peaked in 2010 at 105 million; now it's down to approximately 82.9 million. And a study last year by eMarketer forecast that number to dip to 72.7 million by 2023" (Schneider & Aurthur, 2020). Yet, as we saw earlier, the new streaming TV is very similar to the older forms of TV.
The Individual and Mass Media
13.3 Describe various models of media.
Media scholars are interested in the impact media messages have on individuals, but they are also interested in how individuals decide which media messages to consume or avoid. Marketers and media producers especially want to know how they might predict and characterize individuals' choices so that they can more effectively influence consumer choice. In this section, we'll explore both aspects of individual media consumption -how media messages influence us and how we become active agents, or active seekers, of various media messages and resisters of others. With the term active agent, we stress that even though people inhabit a densely media-rich environment, they need not be passively bombarded by media messages.
The Individual, Mass Media, and Society
13.4 Understand five issues in media studies: social identities, understanding the world, media events, media violence, and media economics.
Why do media play such an important role in society? One reason is that they often serve as the voice of the community. In this way, media offer people a means of thinking about themselves, their places in the world, and the societal forces around them. As individuals, we can only choose from among the media choices available. Societal forces, including the government, economics, media organizations, and advertisers, largely determine which media options are available. In the following section, we'll look at three important roles that media play in society: confirming social identities, helping people understand the world, and helping individuals understand important public events. And finally, because no discussion of media and society would be complete without a discussion of media violence and media economics, we will conclude with these topics.
Ethics and Mass Media
13.5 Identify five ethical issues with mass media.
Because media messages are so powerful, they can generate powerful responses. One potential response is media activism, or the practice of organizing to communicate displeasure with certain media images and messages as well as to advocate for change in future media texts. The issues that media activists address are important because they highlight many significant ethical questions surrounding mediated communication. Media activism, of course, is
not limited to the United States. Media activist groups have mobilized around the world to express ethical concerns about media coverage on a range of issues.
Voicing ethical concerns through media activism is not a recent phenomenon. People have been concerned about media content and images for centuries. The notions of freedom of speech and freedom of the press articulated in the U.S. Constitution reflect one response to media control. In the early twentieth century, as silent movies became popular entertainment, concerns about their racy content and the transition to talking movies led to calls for government regulation of media. In an attempt to avoid government regulation, Hollywood established the Hays Office to create its own system of regulation. The Hays Code, which was published in 1930, established strict rules for media content with the goal of wholesome entertainment. Some of the Hays regulations still apply today, such as the ban on exposing children's sex organs. Other regulations, however, have become outdated, such as the ban against portraying sexual relationships between interracial couples or using vulgar expressions or profanity, which the code specified as including the words "God, Lord, Jesus, Christ (unless used reverently); cripes; fairy (in a vulgar sense)."
The Hays code came about because of media activism in the 1920s, and it continued to set industry standards until the late 1960s, when the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) devised its rating codes. The MPAA represents the six major Hollywood studios. These codes have changed slightly since then, but most people are familiar with the G, PG, PG-13, R, and NC-17 ratings.
Today, media activism has concentrated largely on the ethics of five areas: children's programming, representations of cultural groups, bias in news reporting, alternative programming, and the use of media as an activist strategy. Let's look at each of these in turn.
The first area of ethical focus of media activism is the concern over the impact of media images on children. Complaints about content in television shows and its influence on children led to the creation of the TV Parental Guidelines (TV Parental Guidelines Monitoring Board, n.d.), which are a self-regulating system of the television industry. These guidelines rate programs in terms of appropriateness for particular age groups. You have probably noticed the rating codes in the upper-left corner of the television screen. (An explanation of the ratings is available at http://www.tvguidelines.org/ratings.htm.) This kind of rating system is voluntary, so unless an adult activates the V-chip or an adult is present to change the channel or turn off the television, the rating system may not work as it was intended.
The second ethical focus of media activists has been distortions perpetrated or reinforced by media. The concern here is that such portrayals create stereotypes and misunderstandings. Minority groups, in particular, have had such concerns, as we can see in the number of media activist groups focused on media representations of racial and sexual minorities. On record with Newsweek, Martin Reynolds of the Maynard Institute for Journalism Education, a nonprofit that
promotes diversity in the newsroom, has asserted, "The black press and the ethnic press as a whole have consistently maintained far more credibility in their communities than their mainstream counterparts" (Celis, 2017). Yet that is not to say that minority groups have the same alternative viewpoints about mainstream news.
Media activism has recently taken on more meaning since the "fake news" phenomenon which has been causing confusion among Americans (Barthel et al., 2016). Media activism has traditionally been understood as alternative outlets using media to spark and sustain social movements. But in a world where journalists are no longer the exclusive "gatekeepers" of information, mainstream media channels are increasingly seeing themselves as activists. Media activism, then, now refers to media owners repurposing what it means to disseminate news to the public (Ward, 2015). In fact, some media insiders increasingly see themselves as activists against privately disseminated fake news.
These activists argue that when people have limited contact with minority groups, they are likely to gain false impressions from media misrepresentations. In turn, these distorted images may lead to hate crimes or discriminatory government policies, such as racial profiling. Media activist groups that monitor media producers and challenge them to create responsible and accurate images include Media Action Network for Asian Americans (MANAA) and Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation (GLAAD) as well as organizations that have broader goals but that include a media activist focus, such as the National Organization for Women (NOW) and the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC).
A third category of activist groups has focused on structural issues in media industries and the consequences for how news content is constructed and broadcast to consumers. Within a profit-making environment, does making money influence what stories are covered, and how they are covered for wealthier consumers? For example, organizations such as Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR), the Annenberg Public Policy Center's factcheck.org, the Arthur W. Page Center for Integrity in Public Communication, and the National Public Radio program On the Media are some of the organizations that focus on the news media and their accuracy and fairness in reporting various issues and the inclusion of diverse viewpoints.
The fourth ethical focus of media activists has been to find and provide media texts that offer alternatives to mainstream sources. Many newspapers, radio programs, and Internet sites are available for those who want alternatives to mainstream news media coverage so that they can hear a diversity of voices and opinions. Previously, we discussed the alternative press, but there is also alternative radio programming, such as the Progressive Radio Network, and other alternative media outlets, such as Amy Goodman and Juan Gonzalez's daily television program Democracy Now! Other alternative views are expressed as humor in print, online in The Onion, and on television on The Daily Show and Last Week Tonight with John Oliver. Alternative media outlets are not the same as fake news, in that
they do not present false facts but focus more on alternative interpretations of facts and report news that is not covered in mainstream media outlets.
Finally, some activists use media to communicate specific ethical concerns and messages to a wide audience. Thus, despite the fact that they lack the backing of huge media conglomerates, activists have used media to educate or influence audiences regarding cruelty to animals; the situations in Palestine, Guantánamo, and Afghanistan; violence against women; anti-Semitism; genocide; racism; and more. To get their messages out, these groups set up websites and webcasts, solicit funds to run advertisements on television or in mainstream newspapers or magazines, and sometimes organize demonstrations at strategic times and places.
As new media outlets develop (for example via the Internet, cable TV, and satellite radio) and the world continues to confront new challenges, new ethical issues and new ways of communicating will continue to emerge. We cannot forecast the future, but we do know that the ongoing process of change in the media environment shows no signs of abating. Media activists will continue to try to shape the media messages we receive, while at the same time, media producers will continue to try to sell what people are interested in purchasing. And so, bombarded as you are by media and the messages of a range of media activists, how can you become a responsible media consumer? Let's explore this topic next.
Becoming a More Effective Media Consumer
13.6 Describe three ways to be a more effective consumer of media messages.
As a potential consumer of practically nonstop messages coming from radio, television, newspapers, magazines, advertisements, movies, and so on, you need strategies for dealing with this complex media environment. The solution cannot be boiled down to a set of simple guidelines, of course, but here are some ideas to consider when interacting with media. To become more effective in your media consumption, be an active agent in your media choices, be mindful of the media choices you make, and speak out if you find media content offensive.
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Exam II: COMM 1011 (Coverage: chapters 8,9,10,11,12,13,14)
NAME:
I. Short Answers (Each 3 points) (Answer with a short paragraph)
1- Explain cultural shock and reverse cultural shock.
2- Explain social penetration theory and name ALL of its components and explain each of the components.
3- During our intercultural lecture, we talked about border dwellers. Please explain what do we mean by that term? Who are the border dwellers? What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of being a border dweller? Provide an example for your explanations.
4- Explain the benefits and challenges of intercultural communication. What can we gain from engaging in intercultural communication? Why can it be difficult to engage in intercultural communication?
5- Please define social exchange theory as it applies to close relationships. What role does it play in relationships?
6- Please explain agenda setting theory and provide an example.
7- Please explain the difference between synchronous and asynchronous communication as it relates to interactive media.
8- What are the perceived pros and cons of interactive media. Make sure you discuss both the pros and cons.
9- Please explain cultivation theory and provide an example.
10- Please explain Social Construction of Reality theory and provide an example.
11- Please explain the term “gatekeeper” in relation to mass media, and provide an example to demonstrate understanding.
II. True or False statements. Please indicate whether the following statements are true or false. (2 points each)
1- One strategy for improving intercultural communication skills is to change the way we “talk” about people from different cultural backgrounds.
2- A person can be a cultural hybrid because he/she grew up bilingual.
3- Relationships are important not only to provide us with a sense of belonging, but they are also important for our physical and psychological health.
4- Those who value a small power distance in culture tend to emphasize seniority, rank, and titles.
5- Stereotypes of ethnic, racial, and gender groups that exist in mass media such as TV and movies also exist in online contexts such as online game.
6- Mean world syndrome could occur to people who are excessively exposed to media.
7- Media is also known as the 4th estate of the government for its watchdog function.
8- Selective exposure theory tells people what is the headline of the day that they should think about.
9- Giving a commencement speech is a form of epideictic speech.
10- Chris Evans (actor who plays Captain America) starring in a Hyundai TV commercial is a prime example of Logos artistic proof.
11- Even a statue can be a rhetorical text.
12- Rich countries do not have digital divide.
13. Multimodality describes the information-carrying capacity of a communication medium.
14. Media Richness is our inability to ever truly know who is reading what we are posting.
III. Please choose THE BEST answer to the following questions: (1 Point each) (Use the highlighter to indicate the correct answer)
1. The idea that we develop relationships with people who are approximately as attractive as we are is called the _____ hypothesis.
A. 10-by-10
B. matching
C. equivalent attractiveness
D. uncertainty reduction
2. Bill said something really offensive to his partner, Margaret, a week ago. Since then, Margaret has not spoken to Bill; however, Bill believes that he can remedy this situation and save the relationship. The relationship model that best explains the various, fluid phases of a relationship is known as:
A. Social penetration model
B. Knapp’s Stage Model
C. Turning Point Model
D. None of the above
3. Ashley and Rapunzel became roommates a few weeks ago. The more Ashley gets to know Rapunzel, the more she realizes how much she dislikes her. The theory that explains how reducing uncertainty can lead to repulsion is known as ____ theory.
A. Uncertainty reduction
B. Relational dialectic
C. Predicted outcome
D. Social penetration
4. Selena, the famous Mexican-American singer used music to bridge her two cultures together. She felt empowered by both her cultures, as expressed in her songs. She is an example of:
A. An encapsulated marginal person
B. A constructive marginal person
C. Culture shock
D. Reverse culture shock
5. Jasmine, who is 16, dreams of the day when she can move out of her parents’ home and live on her own. She no longer wants to be tied to her family, but wants to set her own expectations for herself. Which aspect of cultural values does she characterize?
A. Individualist orientation
B. Collectivistic orientation
C. Preferred personality
D. Human value orientation
6. _____ is feeling out of place in your own culture after spending some time immersed in a different culture.
A. Bell curve
B. Border dwelling
C. Culture shock
D. Reverse culture shock
7. To be effective intercultural communicators, we must:
A. Reject out ways and adopt the lifestyle of another culture
B. Enforce our worldviews on those that may not know any better
C. Accept, understand, and be open to culture differences as capable of co-existing
D. All of the above
8. Individuals who identify as cultural hybrids have to move in between
A. Ethnicities
B. Races
C. Languages
D. All of the above
9. Ahmed started to watch The Daily Show with Trevor Noah, a liberal political satire show, because Trevor’s statements aligned with Ahmed’s values and confirmed his beliefs. Ahmed`s choice to consume this media is based on:
A. Selective exposure
B. Social interaction
C. Personal identity
D. Entertainment
10. Madison is working on her doctorate degree in biochemistry. Her research examines ways to minimize waste when brewing beer to help the environment. Madison often posts pictures on Instagram of herself working at breweries. One day, Madison’s grandmother calls Madison expressing she is upset at Madison for spending so much time at breweries when she should be studying for her degree. Which feature of interactive media did Madison forget to consider when posting pictures of herself at breweries?
A. Social presence
B. Spreadability
C. Collapsing contexts
D. Media richness
11. Brennan has one extra ticket to the Broncos game on Sunday. He sends his friends Melodee and Robert an email and informs them that the first friend to respond to the email gets the ticket. Robert gets an alert on his iPhone and immediately emails Brennan back. Melodee does not have a smartphone and does not have wireless at home so does not realize Brennan has a ticket until the next day at work. Melodee’s inability to procure the ticket is a small example of which larger issue of power and access with social media?
A. Digital divide
B. Cultural capital
C. Multimodality
D. Technocapital
12. Which of the following is NOT a type of mass media text
A. Facebook wall post
B. Podcast episode
C. Television season finale
D. Newspaper article
13. Becoming a more effective media consumer consists of:
E. Being an active consumer of media
F. Consuming media from various sources outside of your primary sources
G. Speaking out against media messages that misrepresent information or cultural groups
H. All of the above
14. When having a serious conversation with someone close to you, it is important to be able to observe their verbal and nonverbal cues. You would most likely choose a medium that relays a large amount of information so that you can interpret and respond to the messages accurately, such as FaceTime or face-to-face. The theory/concept that describes the information-carrying capacity of a communication medium is known as:
I. Media richness theory
J. Social presence theory
K. Spreadability
L. Collapsing contexts
15. Believing that the ideal and healthy body type is similar to the body types typically showcased in advertisements, movies, and television shows is an example of which media effect?
A. Cultivation theory
B. Selective exposure theory
C. Media hegemony
D. Social exchange theory
16. Cultivation theory focuses on:
A. Television
B. Farming
C. Relationships
D. Newspapers
17. Sean is from Texas and he has recently started watching a series called “Southern Charm”. He thinks that since he is a southern boy he should be watching this show. His choice to consume this media is based on:
A. Informational seeking
B. Social interaction
C. Personal identity
D. Entertainment
18. Rhetoric is communication that is used to:
A. Provide Directions
B. Encourage Listening
C. Persuade Others
D. Develop Intercultural relationships
19. The rhetorical situation does not include which of the following components
A. Purpose
B. Argument
C. Message
D. Rhetor
20. To be an effective rhetor, you must adapt your message to the
A. Audience
B. Channel
C. Behavior
D. Evidence
21. Michael is an avid online gamer. Unfortunately, Michael is biased when it comes to women playing online games. In fact, he actively tries to convince online games who are women to leave online gaming community. To accomplish this goal, Michael actively posts insulting messages to incite anger and frustration for female gamers. Michael is engaging in what type of aversive online behavior?
A. Ghosting
B. Catfishing
C. Trolling
D. Spamming
22. From 0 to 10, rate your experience in this class (Comm 1011). 10 is the highest and 0 is extremely low. There are no right or wrong answers. Regardless of your answer, you will receive full credit for your answer to this question. Feedback and comments are most welcome. (This question has 4 points)
